Amino acid compositions and methods for the treatment of liver diseases

ABSTRACT

This disclosure provides pharmaceutical compositions comprising amino acid entities and uses thereof. Methods for improving liver function and for treating liver diseases comprising administering an effective amount of the compositions to a subject in need thereof are also disclosed.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 15/847,289 filed Dec. 19, 2017, which claims priority to U.S. Ser. No. 62/436,073 filed Dec. 19, 2016, U.S. Ser. No. 62/443,205 filed Jan. 6, 2017, U.S. Ser. No. 62/491,773 filed Apr. 28, 2017, U.S. Ser. No. 62/545,322 filed Aug. 14, 2017, and U.S. Ser. No. 62/576,267 filed Oct. 24, 2017, the contents of which are each incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.

BACKGROUND

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a disease characterized by fatty deposits in the liver due to causes other than alcohol. NAFLD is the most prevalent liver disease in developed countries and affects close to 25% of the people in the United States. Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is the most severe form of NAFLD, which can lead to inflammation of the liver, fibrosis, cirrhosis, chronic liver failure, and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC).

Currently, there are no approved therapies for treating NASH or NAFLD. Accordingly, there is an unmet need for new treatments in NAFLD and NASH.

SUMMARY

Disclosed herein, at least in part, is a composition including at least four different amino acid entities.

In some embodiments, the composition is capable of one, two, three, four, five, or six or all of:

a) decreasing or preventing liver fibrosis;

b) decreasing or preventing liver injury;

c) decreasing or preventing hepatocyte inflammation;

d) improving, e.g., increasing, glucose tolerance;

e) decreasing or preventing steatosis;

f) decreasing or preventing hepatocyte ballooning; or

-   -   g) improving gut function.

In some embodiments, the composition comprises a leucine (L)-amino acid entity, an arginine (R)-amino acid entity, a glutamine (Q)-amino acid entity; and an antioxidant or reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenger (e.g., a N-acetylcysteine (NAC) entity, e.g., NAC). In some embodiments, at least one amino acid entity is not provided as a peptide of more than 20 amino acid residues in length.

In some embodiments:

(i) an amino acid entity (e.g., at least one, two, or three of the amino acid entities) of (a) is selected from Table 2; and/or

(ii) (A) one or both of the R-amino acid entity and the Q-amino acid entity are present at a higher amount (wt. %) than the L-amino acid entity, or (B) the composition further comprises a serine (S)-amino acid entity.

In any of the aspects and embodiments disclosed herein, the wt. ratio of the L-amino acid entity, the R-amino acid entity, the L-glutamine or a salt thereof, and the NAC or salt thereof is about 0.5 to 3:0.5 to 4:1 to 4:0.1 to 2.5, e.g., the wt. ratio of the L-amino acid entity, the R-amino acid entity, the L-glutamine or a salt thereof, and the NAC or salt thereof is about 1:1.5:2:0.15 or about 1:1.5:2:0.3. In certain embodiments, the wt. ratio of the L-amino acid entity, the R-amino acid entity, the L-glutamine or a salt thereof, and the NAC or salt thereof is about 1+/−15%:1.5+/−15%:2+/−15%:0.15+/−15% or about 1+/−15%:1.5+/−15%:2+/−15%:0.3+/−15%. In any of the aforesaid embodiments in this paragraph, the wt. ratio of the L-amino acid entity, the R-amino acid entity, the L-glutamine or a salt thereof, and the NAC or salt thereof is about 1:0.75:2:0.15 or about 1:0.75:2:0.3. In any of the aforesaid embodiments in this paragraph, the wt. ratio of the L-amino acid entity, the R-amino acid entity, the L-glutamine or a salt thereof, and the NAC or salt thereof is about 1+/−15%:0.75+/−15%:2+/−15%:0.15+/−15% or about 1+/−15%:0.75+/−15%:2+/−15%:0.3+/−15%.

In any of the aspects and embodiments disclosed herein, the wt. ratio of the L-amino acid entity, the I-amino acid entity, the V-amino acid entity, the R-amino acid entity, the L-glutamine or salt thereof, and the NAC or salt thereof is about 1:0.5:0.5:1.5:2:0.15 or about 1:0.5:0.5:1.5:2:0.3.

In any of the aspects and embodiments disclosed herein, the composition further comprises one or both of L-glycine and L-serine. In some embodiments, the composition comprises an L-amino acid entity, an I-amino acid entity, an V-amino acid entity, an R-amino acid entity, an L-glutamine or a salt thereof, an NAC or a salt thereof, and an L-glycine. In certain embodiments, the composition comprises an L-amino acid entity, an I-amino acid entity, a V-amino acid entity, an R-amino acid entity, an L-glutamine or a salt thereof, an NAC or a salt thereof, and an L-serine. In certain embodiments, the composition comprises an L-amino acid entity, an I-amino acid entity, an V-amino acid entity, an R-amino acid entity, an L-glutamine or a salt thereof, an NAC or a salt thereof, an L-glycine, and an L-serine. In any of the aforesaid embodiments in this paragraph, the wt. ratio of the L-amino acid entity, the I-amino acid entity, the V-amino acid entity, the R-amino acid entity, the L-glutamine or salt thereof, and the NAC or salt thereof is about 1:0.5:0.5:1.5:2:0.15 or about 1:0.5:0.5:1.5:2:0.3. In any of the aforesaid embodiments in this paragraph, the wt. ratio of the L-amino acid entity, the I-amino acid entity, the V-amino acid entity, the R-amino acid entity, the L-glutamine or salt thereof, and the NAC or salt thereof is about 1+/−15%:0.5+/−15%:0.5+/−15%:1.5+/−15%:2+/−15%: 0.15+/−15% or about 1+/−15%:0.5+/−15%:0.5+/−15%:1.5+/−15%:2+/−15%:0.3+/−15%.

In any of the aspects and embodiments disclosed herein, the composition comprises about 0.5 g to about 10 g of the L-amino acid entity, about 0.25 g to about 5 g of the I-amino acid entity, about 0.25 g to about 5 g of the V-amino acid entity, about 0.5 g to about 20 g of the R-amino acid entity, about 1 g to about 20 g of the L-glutamine or a salt thereof, and about 0.1 g to about 5 g of the NAC or a salt thereof, e.g., the composition comprises about 1 g of the L-amino acid entity, about 0.5 g of the I-amino acid entity, about 0.5 g of V-amino acid entity, about 1.5 g of R-amino acid entity, about 2 g of L-glutamine or a salt thereof, and about 0.15 g or about 0.3 g of NAC or a salt thereof. In certain embodiments, the composition comprises about 0.15 g of NAC. In certain embodiments, the composition comprises about 0.3 g of NAC. In embodiments, the composition comprises about 4 g of the L-amino acid entity, about 2 g of the I-amino acid entity, about 1 g of V-amino acid entity, about 3 g of R-amino acid entity, about 4 g of L-glutamine or a salt thereof, and about 0.9 g of NAC or a salt thereof.

In any of the aspects and embodiments disclosed herein—the composition comprises about 4 g of the L-amino acid entity, about 2 g of the I-amino acid entity, about 1 g of V-amino acid entity, about 3 g of R-amino acid entity, about 4 g of L-glutamine or a salt thereof, about 0.9 g of NAC or a salt thereof, and about 6 g of L-serine or a salt thereof. In embodiments, the composition comprises about 4 g of the L-amino acid entity, about 2 g of the I-amino acid entity, about 1 g of V-amino acid entity, about 3 g of R-amino acid entity, about 4 g of L-glutamine or a salt thereof, about 0.9 g of NAC or a salt thereof, and about 6.67 g of L-serine or a salt thereof. In embodiments, the composition comprises about 4 g of the L-amino acid entity, about 2 g of the I-amino acid entity, about 1 g of V-amino acid entity, about 3 g of R-amino acid entity, about 4 g of L-glutamine or a salt thereof, about 0.9 g of NAC or a salt thereof, about 9 g of L-serine or a salt thereof, and about 9 g of L-glycine or a salt thereof. In embodiments, the composition comprises about 4 g of the L-amino acid entity, about 2 g of the I-amino acid entity, about 1 g of V-amino acid entity, about 3 g of R-amino acid entity, about 4 g of L-glutamine or a salt thereof, about 0.9 g of NAC or a salt thereof, about 3.33 g of L-serine or a salt thereof, and about 3.33 g of L-glycine or a salt thereof.

In one aspect, the invention features a composition including free amino acids, wherein the amino acids include arginine, glutamine, N-acetylcysteine, and a branched-chain amino acid chosen from one, two, or all of leucine, isoleucine, and valine.

In any of the aspects and embodiments disclosed herein, the branched-chain amino acid is leucine, isoleucine, and valine.

In any of the aspects and embodiments disclosed herein, the wt ratio of leucine, isoleucine, valine, arginine, glutamine, N-acetylcysteine is 1:0.5:0.5:1.5:2:0.15. In certain embodiments, the wt ratio of leucine, isoleucine, valine, arginine, glutamine, N-acetylcysteine is 1+/−15%:0.5+/−15%:0.5+/−15%:1.5+/−15%:2+/−15%:0.15+/−15%.

In any of the aspects and embodiments disclosed herein, a total weight (wt) of the amino acids is about 2 g to about 60 g. In some embodiments, the total wt of the amino acids is about 6 g, about 12 g, about 18 g, about 24 g, or about 48 g.

In any of the aspects and embodiments disclosed herein, the composition includes about 0.5 g to about 10 g of leucine, about 0.25 g to about 5 g of isoleucine, about 0.25 g to about 5 g of valine, about 1 g to about 20 g of arginine, about 1 g to about 20 g of glutamine, and about 0.1 g to about 5 g of N-acetylcysteine.

In any of the aspects and embodiments disclosed herein, the composition includes about 1 g of leucine, about 0.5 g of isoleucine, about 0.5 g of valine, about 1.5 g of arginine, about 2 g of glutamine, and about 0.15 g of N-acetylcysteine.

In any of the aspects and embodiments disclosed herein, the composition includes about 2 g of leucine, about 1 g of isoleucine, about 1 g of valine, about 3.0 g of arginine, about 4 g of glutamine, and about 0.3 g of N-acetylcysteine.

In any of the aspects and embodiments disclosed herein, the composition includes about 4 g of leucine, about 2 g of isoleucine, about 2 g of valine, about 6.0 g of arginine, about 8 g of glutamine, and about 0.6 g of N-acetylcysteine.

In any of the aspects and embodiments disclosed herein, the amino acids include about 10 wt % to about 30 wt % leucine, about 5 wt % to about 15 wt % isoleucine, about 5 wt % to about 15 wt % valine, about 15 wt % to about 40 wt % arginine, about 20 wt % to about 50 wt % glutamine, and about 1 wt % to about 8 wt % n-acetylcysteine.

In any of the aspects and embodiments disclosed herein, the amino acids include about 16 wt % to about 18 wt % leucine, about 7 wt % to about 9 wt % isoleucine, about 7 wt % to about 9 wt % valine, about 28 wt % to about 32 wt % arginine, about 31 wt % to about 34 wt % glutamine, and about 1 wt % to about 5 wt % n-acetylcysteine.

In any of the aspects and embodiments disclosed herein, the amino acids include about 16.8 wt % leucine, about 8.4 wt % isoleucine, about 8.4 wt % valine, about 30.4 wt % arginine, about 33.6 wt % glutamine, and about 2.5 wt % n-acetylcysteine.

In some embodiments of any of the compositions or methods disclosed herein (wherein the ratios discussed in (1)-(26) below are weight ratios):

1) the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the I-amino acid entity is at least 1.5:1, or at least 1.75:1, and not more than 2.5:1 or not more than 3:1, e.g., the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the I-amino acid entity is about 2:1;

2) the ratio of L-amino acid entity to V-amino acid entity is at least 2:1, at least 3:1, at least 3.5:1, at least 4:1, or at least 5:1, and not more than 6:1, e.g., the ratio of L-amino acid entity to V-amino acid entity is about 4:1;

3) the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the R-amino acid entity is at least 1:1, at least 3.5:3, at least 4:3, or at least 2:1, and not more than 5:2, e.g., the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the R-amino acid entity is about 4:3;

4) the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or a salt thereof is at least 0.5:1, or at least 0.75:1, and not more than 1.5 to 1 or not more than 2:1, e.g., the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or salt thereof is about 1:1;

5) the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the NAC entity or a salt thereof is at least 2:1, at least 3:1, at least 3.5:1, or at least 4:1, and not more than 5 to 1 or not more than 6:1, e.g., the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the NAC entity or salt thereof is about 4:1 (e.g., 4:0.9);

6) optionally wherein the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity or a salt thereof is greater than 1:3, greater than 1.5:3, about 2:3, or about 3:5, and not more than 2.5:3 or 1:1, e.g., the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity is about 2:3, or the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity is about 3:5; or

7) a combination of two, three, four, five, or six of (1)-(6).

In some embodiments of any of the compositions or methods disclosed herein:

8) the ratio of I-amino acid entity to V-amino acid entity is at least 1:1, at least 1.5:1, or about 2:1, and not more than 2.5:1 or not more than 3:1, e.g., the ratio of I-amino acid entity to V-amino acid entity is about 2:1;

9) the ratio of the I-amino acid entity to the R-amino acid entity is greater than 1:3, greater than 1.5:3, or about 2:3, and not more than 2.5:3 or not more than 1:1, e.g., the ratio of the I-amino acid entity to the R-amino acid entity is about 2:3;

10) the ratio of the I-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or a salt thereof is at least 1:4, at least 1:3, or about 1:2, and not more than 1:1 or not more than 2:1, e.g., the ratio of the I-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or salt thereof is about 1:2;

11) the ratio of the I-amino acid entity to the NAC entity or a salt thereof is at least 1:1, at least 1.5:1, or about 2:1, and not more than 2.5:1 or not more than 3:1, e.g., the ratio of the I-amino acid entity to the NAC entity or salt thereof is about 2:1 (e.g., 2:0.9);

12) optionally wherein the ratio of the I-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity or a salt thereof is greater than 1:4, greater than 1.5:4, about 1:3, or about 3:10, and not more than 1.5:3 or 2:3, e.g., the ratio of the I-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity is about 1:3, or the ratio of the I-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity is about 3:10; or

13) a combination of two, three, four, or five of (8)-(12).

In some embodiments of any of the compositions or methods disclosed herein:

14) the ratio of the V-amino acid entity to the R-amino acid entity is greater than 1:4, greater than 1.5:4, or about 1:3, and not more than 1:2 or not more than 1:1, e.g., the ratio of the V-amino acid entity to the R-amino acid entity is about 1:3;

15) the ratio of the V-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or a salt thereof is greater than 1:5, or greater than 1.5:5, about 1:4, and not more than 1.5:4 or not more than 1:3, e.g., the ratio of the V-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or salt thereof is about 1:4;

16) the ratio of the V-amino acid entity to the NAC entity or a salt thereof is at least 1:2, at least 1.5:2, or about 1:1, and not more than 1.5:1 or not more than 2:1, e.g., the ratio of the V-amino acid entity to the NAC entity or salt thereof is about 1:1 (e.g., 1:0.9);

17) optionally wherein the ratio of the V-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity or a salt thereof is greater than 1:8, greater than 1:7, about 1:6, or about 3:20, and not more than 1.5:6 or 1:3, e.g., the ratio of the V-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity is about 1:6, or the ratio of the V-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity is about 3:20; or

18) a combination of two, three, or four of (14)-(17).

In some embodiments of any of the compositions or methods disclosed herein:

19) the ratio of the R-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or a salt thereof is greater than 1:2, greater than 1.25:2, or about 3:4, and not more than 3.5:4 or not more than 1:1, e.g., the ratio of the R-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or salt thereof is about 3:4;

20) the ratio of the R-amino acid entity to the NAC entity or a salt thereof is at least 4:1, at least 4:1.5, or about 3:1, and not more than 3:1.5 or not more than 3:2, e.g., the ratio of the R-amino acid entity to the NAC entity or salt thereof is about 3:1 (e.g., 3:0.9);

21) optionally wherein the ratio of the R-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity or a salt thereof is greater than 1:4, greater than 1:3, about 1:2, or about 9:20, and not more than 1.5:2 or 1:1, e.g., the ratio of the R-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity is about 1:2, or the ratio of the R-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity is about 9:20; or

22) a combination of two or three of (19)-(21).

In some embodiments of any of the compositions or methods disclosed herein:

23) the ratio of the L-glutamine to the NAC entity or a salt thereof is at least 5:1, at least 5:1.5, or about 4:1, and not more than 4:1.5 or not more than 3:1, e.g., the ratio of the L-glutamine to the NAC entity or salt thereof is about 4:1 (e.g., 4:0.9);

24) optionally wherein the ratio of the L-glutamine to the S-amino acid entity or a salt thereof is greater than 1:3, greater than 1.25:3, about 2:3, or about 3:5, and not more than 2.5:3 or 1:1, e.g., the ratio of the L-glutamine to the S-amino acid entity is about 2:3, or the ratio of the L-glutamine to the S-amino acid entity is about 3:5; or

25) a combination of (23) and (24).

In some embodiments of any of the compositions or methods disclosed herein:

26) the ratio of the NAC entity to the S-amino acid entity or a salt thereof is greater than 1:8, greater than 1:7, or about 1:6, and not more than 1:5 or not more than 1.5:5, e.g., the ratio of the NAC entity to the S-amino acid entity is about 1:6 (e.g., 0.9:6 or 2.7:20).

In an embodiment, the composition satisfies the properties of (1)-(7) defined above.

In certain embodiments, the composition satisfies the properties of at least 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or 7 of any of properties (1)-(26) defined above.

In an embodiment, the ratio of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination to the R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine or a salt thereof, and NAC or a salt thereof is 12:6:3:9:12:2.7.

In an embodiment, the ratio of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination to the R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine or a salt thereof, NAC or a salt thereof, and the S-amino acid entity is 12:6:3:9:12:2.7:18.

In an embodiment, the ratio of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination to the R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine or a salt thereof, NAC or a salt thereof, and the S-amino acid entity is 12:6:3:9:12:2.7:20.

In an embodiment, the ratio of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination to the R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine or a salt thereof, and NAC or a salt thereof is 12+/−15%:6+/−15%:3+/−15%:9+/−15%:12+/−15%:2.7+/−15%.

In an embodiment, the ratio of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination to the R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine or a salt thereof, NAC or a salt thereof, and the S-amino acid entity is 12+/−15%:6+/−15%:3+/−15%:9+/−15%:12+/−15%:2.7+/−15%:18+/−15%.

In certain embodiments, the ratio of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination to the R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine or a salt thereof, NAC or a salt thereof, the S-amino acid entity, and the L-glycine is 12:6:3:9:12:2.7:9:9. In certain embodiments, the ratio of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination to the R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine or a salt thereof, NAC or a salt thereof, the S-amino acid entity, and the L-glycine is 12:6:3:9:12:2.7:10:10.

In certain embodiments, the ratio of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination to the R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine or a salt thereof, NAC or a salt thereof, the S-amino acid entity, and the L-glycine is 12+/−15%:6+/−15%:3+/−15%:9+/−15%:12+/−15%:2.7+/−15%:9+/−15%:9+/−15%. In certain embodiments, the ratio of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination to the R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine or a salt thereof, NAC or a salt thereof, the S-amino acid entity, and the L-glycine is 12+/−15%:6+/−15%:3+/−15%:9+/−15%:12+/−15%:2.7+/−15%:10+/−15%:10+/−15%.

In any of the aspects and embodiments disclosed herein, the composition further includes one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients.

In some embodiments, the excipients are selected from the group consisting of citric acid, lecithin, a sweetener, a dispersion enhancer, a flavoring, a bitterness masking agent, and a natural or artificial coloring.

In some embodiments, the composition is in the form of a solid, powder, solution, or gel.

In some embodiments, the amino acids consist of leucine, isoleucine, valine, arginine, glutamine and N-acetylcysteine.

Another aspect of the invention features a dietary composition including the composition of any one of the foregoing aspects or embodiments, e.g., wherein the dietary composition is chosen from a medical food, a functional food, or a supplement.

In some embodiments, the dietary composition is chosen from a medical food, a functional food, or a supplement.

In some embodiments, the subject has type 2 diabetes and/or a relatively high BMI.

In some embodiments, the subject has non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD).

In some embodiments, the subject has non-alcoholic fatty liver (NAFL).

In some embodiments, the subject has pediatric NAFLD.

In some embodiments, the patient has steatosis.

In some embodiments, the subject has non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH).

In some embodiments, the subject has fibrosis.

In some embodiments, the subject has cirrhosis.

In some embodiments, the subject has AFLD.

In some embodiments, the subject has ASH.

In some embodiments, the subject has hepatocarcinoma, an increased risk of liver failure, or an increased risk of death.

In some embodiments, the subject has type 2 diabetes.

In some embodiments, the composition promotes weight loss in the subject.

In some embodiments of the method or the dietary composition for use, the composition is administered at a dose of about 15 g/d to about 90 g/d.

In some embodiments of the method or the dietary composition for use, the composition is administered at a dose of about 18 g/d, about 24 g/d, about 36/d, about 54 g/d, or about 72 g/d.

In some embodiments of the method or the dietary composition for use, the composition is administered one, two, to three times per day.

In some embodiments of the method or the dietary composition for use, the composition is administered at a dose of about 6 g, about 8 g, about 12 g, about 16 g, about 18 g, or about 24 g three times per day.

One embodiment provides a nutritional supplement, dietary formulation, functional food, medical food, food, or beverage comprising a composition described herein. Another embodiment provides a nutritional supplement, dietary formulation, functional food, medical food, food, or beverage comprising a composition described herein for use in the management of any of the diseases or disorders described herein. The composition disclosed herein can be used to improve liver function in a subject with fatty liver disease, such as non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD; e.g. NAFL or non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH)) or alcoholic fatty liver disease (AFLD; e.g., alcoholic steatohepatitis (ASH)). Thus, a method, including a dosage regimen, for treating (e.g., inhibiting, reducing, ameliorating, or preventing) various liver disorders, diseases, or symptoms thereof using the amino acid entity compositions is disclosed herein. The composition can also be used as a dietary composition, e.g., a medical food, a functional food, or a supplement.

Another aspect of the invention features a method for treating one or more symptoms selected from the group consisting of decreased fat metabolism, hepatocyte apoptosis, hepatocyte ballooning, inflammation of adipose tissue, inflammation of hepatic tissue, fibrosis, and oxidative stress, wherein the method includes administering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of the composition of any one of aspects or embodiments disclosed herein.

In some embodiments, the subject has non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD).

In some embodiments, the subject has non-alcoholic fatty liver (NAFL).

In some embodiments, the subject has pediatric NAFLD.

In some embodiments, the patient has steatosis.

In some embodiments, the subject has non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH).

In some embodiments, the subject has alcoholic fatty liver disease (AFLD).

In some embodiments, the subject has alcoholic steatohepatitis (ASH)).

In some embodiments, the subject has fibrosis.

In some embodiments, the subject has cirrhosis.

In some embodiments, the subject has one, two, or more (e.g., all) of hepatocarcinoma, an increased risk of liver failure, or an increased risk of death.

In some embodiments, the subject has type 2 diabetes.

Another aspect of the invention features a method for treating non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) including administering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of the composition of any one of the aspects or embodiments disclosed herein.

In some embodiments, the subject has NAFL.

In some embodiments, the subject has pediatric NAFLD.

In some embodiments, the patient has steatosis.

Another aspect of the invention features a method for treating non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) including administering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of the composition of any one of the aspects or embodiments disclosed herein.

In some embodiments, the subject has fibrosis.

Another aspect of the invention features a method for treating AFLD including administering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of the composition of any one of the aspects or embodiments disclosed herein.

In some embodiments, the subject has ASH.

Another aspect of the invention features a method for treating cirrhosis including administering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of the composition of any one of the aspects or embodiments disclosed herein.

In some embodiments, the subject has hepatocarcinoma, an increased risk of liver failure, or an increased risk of death.

In some embodiments, administering the composition results in an improvement in one or more metabolic symptoms in the subject. In some embodiments, the improvement in one or more metabolic symptoms is selected from the following: increased free fatty acid and lipid metabolism, improved mitochondrial function, white adipose tissue (WAT) browning, decreased reactive oxygen species (ROS), increased levels of glutathione (GSH), decreased hepatic inflammation, decreased hepatocyte ballooning, improved gut barrier function, increased insulin secretion, or improved glucose tolerance.

In some embodiments, the increased free fatty acid and lipid metabolism occurs in the liver.

In some embodiments, administration of the composition results in an improvement in one or more metabolic symptoms after a treatment period of 24 hours.

In some embodiments, the method further includes determining the level of one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, or more (e.g., all) of the following:

a) alanine aminotransferase (ALT);

b) aspartate aminotransferase (AST);

c) adiponectin;

d) N-terminal fragment of type III collagen (proC3);

e) caspase-cleaved keratin 18 fragments (M30 and M65);

f) IL-1 beta;

g) C-reactive protein;

h) PIIINP;

i) a tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase (TIMP); e.g., TIMP1 or TIMP2;

j) MCP-1;

k) FGF-21;

l) Col1a1;

m) Acta2;

n) a matrix metalloproteinase (MMP), e.g., MMP-13, MMP-2, MMP-9, MT1-MMP, MMP-3, or MMP-10;

o) ACOX1;

p) IL-10; or

q) NF-kB.

In some embodiments, administration of the composition results in an improvement in one or more of a)-q) after a treatment period of 24 hours.

In some embodiments, the composition is administered prior to a meal.

In some embodiments, the composition is administered concurrent with a meal.

In some embodiments, the composition is administered following a meal.

In some embodiments, the composition is administered with a second agent.

In some embodiments, the second agent is selected from the group consisting of a farnesoid X receptor (FXR) agonist, a stearoyl CoA desaturase inhibitor, a CCR2 and CCR5 chemokine antagonist, a PPAR alpha and delta agonist, a caspase inhibitor, a galectin-3 inhibitor, an acetyl CoA carboxylase inhibitor, or an ileal sodium bile acid co-transporter inhibitor. Another aspect of the invention provides a method of maintaining or improving liver health comprising administering to a subject an effective amount of any of the compositions described herein. Another embodiment provides a method of providing nutritional support or supplementation to a subject suffering from NAFLD (e.g., NASH or NAFL) or AFLD (e.g., ASH) comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a composition described herein. Yet another embodiment provides a method of providing nutritional supplementation that aids in the management of NAFLD (e.g., NASH or NAFL) or AFLD (e.g., ASH) to a subject comprising administering to the subject in need thereof an effective amount of a composition described herein.

Additional features and embodiments of the present invention include one or more of the following.

Another aspect of the invention features a composition comprising:

a) a L-amino acid entity chosen from L-leucine or a salt thereof, or β-hydroxy-β-methybutyrate (HMB) or a salt thereof, or a combination of L-leucine or a salt thereof and HMB or a salt thereof;

b) an R-amino acid entity chosen from: L-arginine or a salt thereof, ornithine or a salt thereof, or creatine or a salt thereof, or a combination of two or three of L-arginine or a salt thereof, ornithine or a salt thereof, or creatine or a salt thereof;

c) L-glutamine or a salt thereof; and

d) N-acetylcysteine (NAC) or a salt thereof.

In an embodiment, L-leucine is provided as part of a dipeptide comprising L-leucine, or a salt thereof, or a tripeptide comprising L-leucine, or a salt thereof.

In an embodiment, L-arginine is provided as part of a dipeptide comprising L-arginine, or a salt thereof, or a tripeptide comprising L-arginine, or a salt thereof.

In an embodiment L-glutamine is provided as part of a dipeptide comprising L-glutamine, or a salt thereof, or a tripeptide comprising L-glutamine, or a salt thereof.

In an embodiment NAC is provided as a part of a dipeptide comprising NAC, or a salt thereof, or a tripeptide comprising NAC, or a salt thereof.

In some embodiments of any of the compositions or methods disclosed herein, one, two, three, or four of methionine (M), tryptophan (W), valine (V), or cysteine (C) is absent, or if present, is present at a percentage of the composition by weight (wt. %) of less than 10%. In some embodiments, the total wt. % of (a)-(d) is greater than the total wt. % of any other amino acid entity in the composition.

In some embodiments of any of the compositions or methods disclosed herein, one, two, three, or four of the amino acids in (a)-(d) is provided as part of a dipeptide or tripeptide, e.g., in an amount of at least 10 wt. % of the composition. In certain embodiments, the dipeptide is a homodipeptide or heterodipeptide of any of the amino acids in (a)-(d), e.g., one, two, three, or four of the amino acids in (a)-(d) is a homodipeptide or heterodipeptide. In certain embodiments, the tripeptide is a homotripeptide or heterotripeptide of any of (a)-(d), e.g., one, two, three, or four of (a)-(d) is a homotripeptide or heterotripeptide.

In some embodiments of any of the compositions or methods disclosed herein, (a) is a L-amino acid entity dipeptide or a salt thereof (e.g., a L-leucine dipeptide or a salt thereof). In some embodiments, (a) is a homodipeptide. In some embodiments, (a) is a heterodipeptide, e.g., Ala-Leu.

In some embodiments of any of the compositions or methods disclosed herein, (b) is a L-arginine dipeptide or a salt thereof. In some embodiments, (b) is a homodipeptide. In some embodiments, (b) is a heterodipeptide, e.g., Ala-Arg.

In some embodiments of any of the compositions or methods disclosed herein, (c) is a L-glutamine dipeptide or a salt thereof. In some embodiments, (c) is a homodipeptide, e.g., Gln-Gln. In some embodiments, (c) is a heterodipeptide, e.g., Ala-Gln.

In some embodiments of any of the compositions or methods disclosed herein:

f) a wt. % of the L-glutamine or a salt thereof in the composition is greater than the wt. % of the R-amino acid entity;

g) the wt. % of the L-glutamine or a salt thereof in the composition is greater than the wt. % of the L-amino acid entity;

h) the wt. % of the R-amino acid entity in the composition is greater than the wt. % of the L-amino acid entity; or

i) a combination of two or three of (f)-(h).

In some embodiments of any of the compositions or methods disclosed herein, the wt. % of the L-glutamine or a salt thereof in the composition is at least 5% greater than the wt. % of the R-amino acid entity, e.g., the wt. % of the L-glutamine or a salt thereof is at least 10%, 15%, 20%, or 25% greater than the wt. % of the R-amino acid entity.

In some embodiments of any of the compositions or methods disclosed herein, the wt. % of the L-glutamine or a salt thereof in the composition is at least 20% greater than the wt. % of the L-amino acid entity, e.g., the wt. % of the L-glutamine or a salt thereof in the composition is at least 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% greater than the wt. % of the L-amino acid entity.

In some embodiments of any of the compositions or methods disclosed herein, the wt. % of the R-amino acid entity in the composition is at least 10% greater than the wt. % of the L-amino acid entity, e.g., the wt. % of the R-amino acid entity in the composition is at least 15%, 20%, 25%, or 30% greater than the wt. % of the L-amino acid entity.

In some embodiments of any of the compositions or methods disclosed herein:

j) the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the R-amino acid entity is at least 1:4, or at least 2:5, and not more than 3:4, e.g., the ratio of L-amino acid entity to R-amino acid entity is about 2:3;

k) the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or a salt thereof is at least 1:4, or at least 1:3, and not more than 3:4, e.g., the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or a salt thereof is about 1:2;

l) the ratio of the R-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or a salt thereof is at least 1:4, or at least 1:2, and not more than 6:7, e.g., the ratio of the R-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or a salt thereof is about 3:4; or

m) a combination of two or three of (j)-(l).

In an embodiment, the composition satisfies the properties of (j)-(l) defined above.

In certain embodiments, the composition satisfies the properties of at least 2, 3, or 4 of any of properties (j)-(m) defined above.

In some embodiments of any of the compositions or methods disclosed herein, the composition further comprises one or both of an isoleucine (I)-amino acid-entity and a valine (V)-amino acid-entity, e.g., both the I-amino acid-entity and the V-amino acid-entity are present.

In some embodiments of any of the compositions or methods disclosed herein:

n) the wt. % of the L-amino acid-entity in the composition is greater than or equal to the wt. % of the I-amino acid-entity and the V-amino acid-entity in combination;

o) the wt. % of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination in the composition is greater than or equal to the wt. % of the L-glutamine or a salt thereof;

p) the wt. % of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination in the composition is less than the wt. % of the R-amino acid entity;

q) the wt. % of the R-amino acid entity and the L-glutamine or a salt thereof in the composition is greater than the wt. % of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination; or

r) a combination of two, three, or four of (n)-(q).

In some embodiments of any of the compositions or methods disclosed herein:

s) the wt. % of the R-amino acid entity, the L-glutamine or a salt thereof, and the NAC or a salt thereof is at least 50% of the composition, or at least 70% of the composition, but not more than 90% of the composition;

t) the wt. % of the NAC or a salt thereof is at least 1%, or at least 2%, but not more than 10% of the composition;

u) the wt. % of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination is at least 15%, or at least 20%, but not more than 50% of the composition;

v) the wt. % of the R-amino acid entity, the L-glutamine or a salt thereof, and the NAC or a salt thereof is at least 40%, or at least 50%, but not more than 80% of the composition; or w) a combination of two, three, or four of (s)-(v).

In some embodiments of any of the compositions or methods disclosed herein:

x) the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the I-amino acid entity is at least 1.5:1, or at least 1.75:1, and not more than 2.5 to 1 or not more than 3:1, e.g., the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the I-amino acid entity is about 2:1;

y) the ratio of L-amino acid entity to V-amino acid entity is at least 1.5:1, or at least 1.75:1, and not more than 2.5 to 1 or not more than 3:1, e.g., the ratio of L to V is about 2:1;

z) the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the R-amino acid entity is greater than 1:3, greater than 1.5 to 3, and less than 3:3, e.g., the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the R-amino acid entity is about 2:3;

aa) the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or a salt thereof is greater than 1:4, greater than 1.5 to 4 and less than 4:4, or less than 3:4, e.g., the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or a salt thereof is about 1:2; or

bb) a combination of two, three, or four of (x)-(aa).

In an embodiment, the composition satisfies the properties of (x)-(aa) defined above.

In certain embodiments, the composition satisfies the properties of at least 2, 3, 4, or 5 of any of properties (x)-(bb) defined above.

In some embodiments of any of the compositions or methods disclosed herein:

cc) the ratio of the I-amino acid entity to the V-amino acid entity is at least 0.5:1, or at least 0.75:1, and not more than 1.5 to 1 or not more than 2:1, e.g., the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the I-amino acid entity is about 1:1;

dd) the ratio of the I-amino acid entity to the R-amino acid entity is at least 0.5:3, or at least 0.75:3, and not more than 2:3, or not more than 1.5:3, e.g., the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the I-amino acid entity is about 1:3;

ee) the ratio of the I-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or a salt thereof is at least 0.5:4, or at least 0.75:4, and not more than 3:4, or not more than 2:4, e.g., the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or a salt thereof is about 1:4; or

ff) or a combination of two or three of (cc)-(ee).

In an embodiment, the composition satisfies the properties of (cc)-(ee) defined above.

In certain embodiments, the composition satisfies the properties of at least 2, 3, or 4 of any of properties (cc)-(ff) defined above.

In some embodiments of any of the compositions or methods disclosed herein:

gg) the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the V-amino acid entity is at least 1.5:1, or at least 1.75:1, and not more than 2.5 to 1 or not more than 3:1, e.g., the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the V-amino acid entity is about 2:1;

hh) the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the R-amino acid entity is greater than 1:3 or greater than 1.5 to 3, and less than 3:3, e.g., the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the R-amino acid entity is about 2:3;

ii) the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or a salt thereof is greater than 1:4 or greater than 1.5 to 4, and less than 4:4 or less than 3:4, e.g., the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or a salt thereof is about 1:2; or

jj) a combination of two or three of (gg)-(ii).

In an embodiment, the composition satisfies the properties of (gg)-(ii) defined above.

In certain embodiments, the composition satisfies the properties of at least 2, 3, or 4 of any of properties (gg)-(jj) defined above.

In some embodiments of any of the compositions or methods disclosed herein:

kk) the ratio of the V-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or a salt thereof is at least 0.5:4, or at least 0.75:4, and not more than 3:4, or not more than 2:4, e.g., the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or a salt thereof is about 1:4;

ll) the ratio of the V-amino acid entity to the R-amino acid entity is at least 0.5:3, or at least 0.75:3, and not more than 2:3, or not more than 1.5:3, e.g., the ratio of the V-amino acid entity to the R-amino acid entity is about 1:3;

mm) the ratio of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination to the R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine or a salt thereof, and NAC or a salt thereof is at least 1:4, or at least 2:3, or not more than 5:7, or not more than 6:7, e.g., the ratio is about 6:11; or

nn) a combination of two or three of (kk)-(mm).

In an embodiment, the composition satisfies the properties of (kk)-(mm) defined above.

In certain embodiments, the composition satisfies the properties of at least 2, 3, or 4 of any of properties (kk)-(nn) defined above.

In some embodiments of any of the compositions or methods disclosed herein, the composition further comprises an S-amino acid entity.

In some embodiments of any of the compositions or methods disclosed herein:

1) the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the I-amino acid entity is at least 1.5:1, or at least 1.75:1, and not more than 2.5:1 or not more than 3:1, e.g., the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the I-amino acid entity is about 2:1;

2) the ratio of L-amino acid entity to V-amino acid entity is at least 2:1, at least 3:1, at least 3.5:1, at least 4:1, or at least 5:1, and not more than 6:1, e.g., the ratio of L-amino acid entity to V-amino acid entity is about 4:1;

3) the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the R-amino acid entity is at least 1:1, at least 3.5:3, at least 4:3, or at least 2:1, and not more than 5:2, e.g., the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the R-amino acid entity is about 4:3;

4) the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or a salt thereof is at least 0.5:1, or at least 0.75:1, and not more than 1.5 to 1 or not more than 2:1, e.g., the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or salt thereof is about 1:1;

5) the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the NAC entity or a salt thereof is at least 2:1, at least 3:1, at least 3.5:1, or at least 4:1, and not more than 5 to 1 or not more than 6:1, e.g., the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the NAC entity or salt thereof is about 4:1 (e.g., 4:0.9);

6) optionally wherein the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity or a salt thereof is greater than 1:3, greater than 1.5:3, about 2:3, or about 3:5, and not more than 2.5:3 or 1:1, e.g., the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity is about 2:3, or the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity is about 3:5; or

7) a combination of two, three, four, five, or six of (1)-(6).

In some embodiments of any of the compositions or methods disclosed herein:

8) the ratio of I-amino acid entity to V-amino acid entity is at least 1:1, at least 1.5:1, or about 2:1, and not more than 2.5:1 or not more than 3:1, e.g., the ratio of I-amino acid entity to V-amino acid entity is about 2:1;

9) the ratio of the I-amino acid entity to the R-amino acid entity is greater than 1:3, greater than 1.5:3, or about 2:3, and not more than 2.5:3 or not more than 1:1, e.g., the ratio of the I-amino acid entity to the R-amino acid entity is about 2:3;

10) the ratio of the I-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or a salt thereof is at least 1:4, at least 1:3, or about 1:2, and not more than 1:1 or not more than 2:1, e.g., the ratio of the I-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or salt thereof is about 1:2;

11) the ratio of the I-amino acid entity to the NAC entity or a salt thereof is at least 1:1, at least 1.5:1, or about 2:1, and not more than 2.5:1 or not more than 3:1, e.g., the ratio of the I-amino acid entity to the NAC entity or salt thereof is about 2:1 (e.g., 2:0.9);

12) optionally wherein the ratio of the I-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity or a salt thereof is greater than 1:4, greater than 1.5:4, about 1:3, or about 3:10, and not more than 1.5:3 or 2:3, e.g., the ratio of the I-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity is about 1:3, or the ratio of the I-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity is about 3:10; or

13) a combination of two, three, four, or five of (8)-(12).

In some embodiments of any of the compositions or methods disclosed herein:

14) the ratio of the V-amino acid entity to the R-amino acid entity is greater than 1:4, greater than 1.5:4, or about 1:3, and not more than 1:2 or not more than 1:1, e.g., the ratio of the V-amino acid entity to the R-amino acid entity is about 1:3;

15) the ratio of the V-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or a salt thereof is greater than 1:5, or greater than 1.5:5, about 1:4, and not more than 1.5:4 or not more than 1:3, e.g., the ratio of the V-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or salt thereof is about 1:4;

16) the ratio of the V-amino acid entity to the NAC entity or a salt thereof is at least 1:2, at least 1.5:2, or about 1:1, and not more than 1.5:1 or not more than 2:1, e.g., the ratio of the V-amino acid entity to the NAC entity or salt thereof is about 1:1 (e.g., 1:0.9);

17) optionally wherein the ratio of the V-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity or a salt thereof is greater than 1:8, greater than 1:7, about 1:6, or about 3:20, and not more than 1.5:6 or 1:3, e.g., the ratio of the V-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity is about 1:6, or the ratio of the V-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity is about 3:20; or

18) a combination of two, three, or four of (14)-(17).

In some embodiments of any of the compositions or methods disclosed herein:

19) the ratio of the R-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or a salt thereof is greater than 1:2, greater than 1.25:2, or about 3:4, and not more than 3.5:4 or not more than 1:1, e.g., the ratio of the R-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or salt thereof is about 3:4;

20) the ratio of the R-amino acid entity to the NAC entity or a salt thereof is at least 4:1, at least 4:1.5, or about 3:1, and not more than 3:1.5 or not more than 3:2, e.g., the ratio of the R-amino acid entity to the NAC entity or salt thereof is about 3:1 (e.g., 3:0.9);

21) optionally wherein the ratio of the R-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity or a salt thereof is greater than 1:4, greater than 1:3, about 1:2, or about 9:20, and not more than 1.5:2 or 1:1, e.g., the ratio of the R-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity is about 1:2, or the ratio of the R-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity is about 9:20; or

22) a combination of two or three of (19)-(21).

In some embodiments of any of the compositions or methods disclosed herein:

23) the ratio of the L-glutamine to the NAC entity or a salt thereof is at least 5:1, at least 5:1.5, or about 4:1, and not more than 4:1.5 or not more than 3:1, e.g., the ratio of the L-glutamine to the NAC entity or salt thereof is about 4:1 (e.g., 4:0.9);

24) optionally wherein the ratio of the L-glutamine to the S-amino acid entity or a salt thereof is greater than 1:3, greater than 1.25:3, about 2:3, or about 3:5, and not more than 2.5:3 or 1:1, e.g., the ratio of the L-glutamine to the S-amino acid entity is about 2:3, or the ratio of the L-glutamine to the S-amino acid entity is about 3:5; or

25) a combination of (23) and (24).

In some embodiments of any of the compositions or methods disclosed herein:

26) the ratio of the NAC entity to the S-amino acid entity or a salt thereof is greater than 1:8, greater than 1:7, or about 1:6, and not more than 1:5 or not more than 1.5:5, e.g., the ratio of the NAC entity to the S-amino acid entity is about 1:6 (e.g., 0.9:6 or 2.7:20).

In an embodiment, the composition satisfies the properties of (1)-(7) defined above.

In certain embodiments, the composition satisfies the properties of at least 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or 7 of any of properties (1)-(26) defined above.

In an embodiment, the ratio of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination to the R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine or a salt thereof, and NAC or a salt thereof is 12:6:3:9:12:2.7.

In an embodiment, the ratio of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination to the R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine or a salt thereof, NAC or a salt thereof, and the S-amino acid entity is 12:6:3:9:12:2.7:18.

In an embodiment, the ratio of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination to the R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine or a salt thereof, NAC or a salt thereof, and the S-amino acid entity is 12:6:3:9:12:2.7:20.

In an embodiment, the ratio of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination to the R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine or a salt thereof, and NAC or a salt thereof is 12+/−15%:6+/−15%:3+/−15%:9+/−15%:12+/−15%:2.7+/−15%.

In an embodiment, the ratio of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination to the R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine or a salt thereof, NAC or a salt thereof, and the S-amino acid entity is 12+/−15%:6+/−15%:3+/−15%:9+/−15%:12+/−15%:2.7+/−15%:18+/−15%.

In certain embodiments, the ratio of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination to the R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine or a salt thereof, NAC or a salt thereof, the S-amino acid entity, and the L-glycine is 12:6:3:9:12:2.7:9:9. In certain embodiments, the ratio of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination to the R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine or a salt thereof, NAC or a salt thereof, the S-amino acid entity, and the L-glycine is 12:6:3:9:12:2.7:10:10.

In certain embodiments, the ratio of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination to the R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine or a salt thereof, NAC or a salt thereof, the S-amino acid entity, and the L-glycine is 12+/−15%:6+/−15%:3+/−15%:9+/−15%:12+/−15%:2.7+/−15%:9+/−15%:9+/−15%. In certain embodiments, the ratio of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination to the R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine or a salt thereof, NAC or a salt thereof, the S-amino acid entity, and the L-glycine is 12+/−15%:6+/−15%:3+/−15%:9+/−15%:12+/−15%:2.7+/−15%:10+/−15%:10+/−15%.

In some embodiments of any of the compositions or methods disclosed herein:

oo) a wt. % of the L-amino acid entity in the composition is greater than the wt. % of the NAC or a salt thereof;

pp) a wt. % of the R-amino acid entity in the composition is greater than the wt. % of the NAC or a salt thereof;

qq) a wt. % of the L-glutamine or a salt thereof in the composition is greater than the wt. % of the NAC or a salt thereof; or

rr) a combination of two or three of (oo)-(qq).

In some embodiments of any of the compositions or methods disclosed herein, at least one of (a)-(d) is a free amino acid, e.g., two, three, or four of (a)-(d) are a free amino acid, e.g., at least 50 wt. % of the total wt. of the composition is one or more amino acid entities in free form.

In some embodiments of any of the compositions or methods disclosed herein, at least one of (a)-(d) is in a salt form, e.g., one, two, three, or four of (a)-(d) is in a salt form, e.g., at least 10 wt. % of the total wt. of the composition is one or more amino acid entities in salt form.

In some embodiments of any of the compositions or methods disclosed herein, the composition is capable of one, two, three, four, five, or all of:

a) decreasing or preventing liver fibrosis;

b) decreasing or preventing liver injury;

c) decreasing or preventing hepatocyte inflammation;

d) improving, e.g., increasing, glucose tolerance;

e) decreasing or preventing steatosis;

f) decreasing or preventing hepatocyte ballooning; or

g) improving gut function.

In some embodiments of any of the compositions or methods disclosed herein, the composition further comprises one or both of L-glycine and L-serine. In certain embodiments, the composition comprises an L-amino acid entity, an I-amino acid entity, an V-amino acid entity, an R-amino acid entity, an L-glutamine or a salt thereof, an NAC or a salt thereof, and an L-glycine. In certain embodiments, the composition comprises an L-amino acid entity, an I-amino acid entity, an V-amino acid entity, an R-amino acid entity, an L-glutamine or a salt thereof, an NAC or a salt thereof, and an L-serine. In certain embodiments, the composition comprises an L-amino acid entity, an I-amino acid entity, an V-amino acid entity, an R-amino acid entity, an L-glutamine or a salt thereof, an NAC or a salt thereof, an L-glycine, and an L-serine. In any of the aforesaid embodiments in this paragraph, the wt. ratio of the L-amino acid entity, the I-amino acid entity, the V-amino acid entity, the R-amino acid entity, the L-glutamine or salt thereof, and the NAC or salt thereof is about 1:0.5:0.5:1.5:2:0.15 or about 1:0.5:0.5:1.5:2:0.3.

In some embodiments of any of the compositions or methods disclosed herein, the wt. ratio of the L-amino acid entity, the R-amino acid entity, the L-glutamine or a salt thereof, and the NAC or salt thereof is about 0.5 to 3:0.5 to 4:1 to 4:0.1 to 2.5, e.g., the wt. ratio of the L-amino acid entity, the R-amino acid entity, the L-glutamine or a salt thereof, and the NAC or salt thereof is about 1:1.5:2:0.15, about 1:1.5:2:0.225, about 1:1.5:2:0.3, or about 1:1.5:2:0.5. In any of the aforesaid embodiments in this paragraph, the wt. ratio of the L-amino acid entity, the R-amino acid entity, the L-glutamine or a salt thereof, and the NAC or salt thereof is about 1:0.75:2:0.15, about 1:0.75:2:0.225, about 1:0.75:2:0.3, or about 1:0.75:2:0.5.

In some embodiments, the wt. ratio of the L-amino acid entity, the I-amino acid entity, the V-amino acid entity, the R-amino acid entity, the L-glutamine or salt thereof, and the NAC or salt thereof is about 1:0.5:0.5:1.5:2:0.15, about 1:0.5:0.5:1.5:2:0.225, about 1:0.5:0.5:1.5:2:0.3, or about 1:0.5:0.5:1.5:2:0.5.

In some embodiments of any of the compositions or methods disclosed herein, the composition comprises about 0.5 g to about 10 g of the L-amino acid entity, about 0.25 g to about 5 g of the I-amino acid entity, about 0.25 g to about 5 g of the V-amino acid entity, about 0.5 g to about 20 g of the R-amino acid entity, about 1 g to about 20 g of the L-glutamine or a salt thereof, and about 0.1 g to about 5 g of the NAC or a salt thereof, e.g., the composition comprises about 1 g of the L-amino acid entity, about 0.5 g of the I-amino acid entity, about 0.5 g of V-amino acid entity, about 1.5 g of R-amino acid entity, about 2 g of L-glutamine or a salt thereof, and about 0.15 g, about 0.225 g, about 0.3 g, or about 0.5 g of NAC or a salt thereof. In certain embodiments, the composition comprises about 0.15 g of NAC. In certain embodiments, the composition comprises about 0.3 g of NAC. In embodiments, the composition comprises about 4 g of the L-amino acid entity, about 2 g of the I-amino acid entity, about 1 g of V-amino acid entity, about 3 g of R-amino acid entity, about 4 g of L-glutamine or a salt thereof, and about 0.9 g of NAC or a salt thereof. In embodiments, the composition comprises about 4 g of the L-amino acid entity, about 2 g of the I-amino acid entity, about 1 g of V-amino acid entity, about 3 g of R-amino acid entity, about 4 g of L-glutamine or a salt thereof, about 0.9 g of NAC or a salt thereof, and about 6 g of L-serine or a salt thereof. In embodiments, the composition comprises about 4 g of the L-amino acid entity, about 2 g of the I-amino acid entity, about 1 g of V-amino acid entity, about 3 g of R-amino acid entity, about 4 g of L-glutamine or a salt thereof, about 0.9 g of NAC or a salt thereof, and about 6.67 g of L-serine or a salt thereof. In embodiments, the composition comprises about 4 g of the L-amino acid entity, about 2 g of the I-amino acid entity, about 1 g of V-amino acid entity, about 3 g of R-amino acid entity, about 4 g of L-glutamine or a salt thereof, about 0.9 g of NAC or a salt thereof, about 3 g of L-serine or a salt thereof, and about 3 g of L-glycine or a salt thereof. In embodiments, the composition comprises about 4 g of the L-amino acid entity, about 2 g of the I-amino acid entity, about 1 g of V-amino acid entity, about 3 g of R-amino acid entity, about 4 g of L-glutamine or a salt thereof, about 0.9 g of NAC or a salt thereof, about 3.33 g of L-serine or a salt thereof, and about 3.33 g of L-glycine or a salt thereof.

In some embodiments of any of the compositions or methods disclosed herein, the composition comprises:

-   -   a) L-Leucine or a salt thereof;     -   b) L-Isoleucine or a salt thereof;     -   c) L-Valine or a salt thereof;     -   d) L-Arginine or a salt thereof;     -   e) L-Glutamine or a salt thereof; and     -   f) NAC or a salt thereof.

In an embodiment, L-Leucine is provided as part of a dipeptide comprising L-Leucine, or a salt thereof, or a tripeptide comprising L-Leucine, or a salt thereof.

In an embodiment, L-Isoleucine is provided as part of a dipeptide comprising L-Isoleucine, or a salt thereof, or a tripeptide comprising L-Isoleucine, or a salt thereof.

In an embodiment, L-Valine is provided as part of a dipeptide comprising L-Valine, or a salt thereof, or a tripeptide comprising L-Valine, or a salt thereof.

In an embodiment, L-Arginine is provided as part of a dipeptide comprising L-Arginine, or a salt thereof, or a tripeptide comprising L-Arginine, or a salt thereof.

In an embodiment L-Glutamine is provided as part of a dipeptide comprising L-Glutamine, or a salt thereof, or a tripeptide comprising L-Glutamine, or a salt thereof.

In an embodiment NAC is provided as a part of a dipeptide comprising NAC, or a salt thereof, or a tripeptide comprising NAC, or a salt thereof.

In some embodiments of any of the compositions or methods disclosed herein, the composition comprises a combination of 4 to 20 different amino acid entities, e.g., a combination of 5 to 15 different amino acid entities.

In some embodiments of any of the compositions or methods disclosed herein, at least two, three, four, or more amino acid entities are not comprised in a peptide of more than 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20 amino acid residues in length.

Another aspect of the invention features a method for improving liver function, wherein the method comprises administering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of a composition comprising:

a) a L-amino acid entity chosen from L-leucine or a salt thereof, or β-hydroxy-β-methybutyrate (HMB) or a salt thereof, or a combination of L-leucine or a salt thereof and HMB or a salt thereof;

b) an R-amino acid entity chosen from: L-arginine or a salt thereof, ornithine or a salt thereof, or creatine or a salt thereof, or a combination of two or three of L-arginine or a salt thereof, ornithine or a salt thereof, or creatine or a salt thereof;

c) L-glutamine or a salt thereof; and

d) N-acetylcysteine (NAC) or a salt thereof.

In an embodiment, L-Leucine is provided as part of a dipeptide comprising L-Leucine, or a salt thereof, or a tripeptide comprising L-Leucine, or a salt thereof.

In an embodiment, L-Arginine is provided as part of a dipeptide comprising L-Arginine, or a salt thereof, or a tripeptide comprising L-Arginine, or a salt thereof.

In an embodiment L-Glutamine is provided as part of a dipeptide comprising L-Glutamine, or a salt thereof, or a tripeptide comprising L-Glutamine, or a salt thereof.

In an embodiment NAC is provided as a part of a dipeptide comprising NAC, or a salt thereof, or a tripeptide comprising NAC, or a salt thereof.

Another aspect of the invention features a method for treating one or more symptoms selected from the group consisting of decreased fat metabolism, hepatocyte apoptosis, hepatocyte ballooning, inflammation of adipose tissue, inflammation of hepatic tissue, fibrosis, liver injury, steatosis, glucose tolerance, and oxidative stress, wherein the method comprises administering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of a composition comprising:

a) a L-amino acid entity chosen from L-leucine or a salt thereof, or β-hydroxy-β-methybutyrate (HMB) or a salt thereof, or a combination of L-leucine or a salt thereof and HMB or a salt thereof;

b) an R-amino acid entity chosen from: L-arginine or a salt thereof, ornithine or a salt thereof, or creatine or a salt thereof, or a combination of two or three of L-arginine or a salt thereof, ornithine or a salt thereof, or creatine or a salt thereof;

c) L-glutamine or a salt thereof; and

d) N-acetylcysteine (NAC) or a salt thereof.

In an embodiment, L-Leucine is provided as part of a dipeptide comprising L-Leucine, or a salt thereof, or a tripeptide comprising L-Leucine, or a salt thereof.

In an embodiment, L-Arginine is provided as part of a dipeptide comprising L-Arginine, or a salt thereof, or a tripeptide comprising L-Arginine, or a salt thereof.

In an embodiment L-Glutamine is provided as part of a dipeptide comprising L-Glutamine, or a salt thereof, or a tripeptide comprising L-Glutamine, or a salt thereof.

In an embodiment NAC is provided as a part of a dipeptide comprising NAC, or a salt thereof, or a tripeptide comprising NAC, or a salt thereof.

Another aspect of the invention features a method for treating fatty liver disease, wherein the method comprises administering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of a composition comprising:

a) a L-amino acid entity chosen from L-leucine or a salt thereof, or β-hydroxy-β-methybutyrate (HMB) or a salt thereof, or a combination of L-leucine or a salt thereof and HMB or a salt thereof;

b) an R-amino acid entity chosen from: L-arginine or a salt thereof, ornithine or a salt thereof, or creatine or a salt thereof, or a combination of two or three of L-arginine or a salt thereof, ornithine or a salt thereof, or creatine or a salt thereof;

c) L-glutamine or a salt thereof; and

d) N-acetylcysteine (NAC) or a salt thereof.

In an embodiment, L-Leucine is provided as part of a dipeptide comprising L-Leucine, or a salt thereof, or a tripeptide comprising L-Leucine, or a salt thereof.

In an embodiment, L-Arginine is provided as part of a dipeptide comprising L-Arginine, or a salt thereof, or a tripeptide comprising L-Arginine, or a salt thereof.

In an embodiment L-Glutamine is provided as part of a dipeptide comprising L-Glutamine, or a salt thereof, or a tripeptide comprising L-Glutamine, or a salt thereof.

In an embodiment NAC is provided as a part of a dipeptide comprising NAC, or a salt thereof, or a tripeptide comprising NAC, or a salt thereof.

In some embodiments of any of the compositions or methods disclosed herein, e.g., of any of the methods described herein, the subject has a disease or disorder selected from the group consisting of non-alcoholic fatty liver (NAFL), non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), alcoholic fatty liver disease (AFLD), and alcoholic steatohepatitis (ASH). In certain embodiments, the subject has pediatric NAFLD.

In some embodiments of any of the compositions or methods disclosed herein, e.g., of any of the methods described herein, the subject has a high BMI, obesity, gut leakiness, gut dysbiosis, or gut microbiome disturbance.

In some embodiments of any of the compositions or methods disclosed herein, e.g., of any of the methods described herein, the subject has cirrhosis, hepatocarcinoma, an increased risk of liver failure, an increased risk of death, metabolic syndrome, or type 2 diabetes.

In some embodiments of any of the compositions or methods disclosed herein, e.g., of any of the methods described herein, the subject has increased levels of inflammatory cytokines relative to a normal subject, e.g., the subject has increased levels of TNFα relative to a normal subject e.g., without the one or more symptoms or without the fatty liver disease.

In some embodiments, e.g., of any of the methods described herein, the subject exhibits muscle atrophy or has a decreased ratio of muscle tissue to adipose tissue relative to a normal subject, e.g., without the one or more symptoms or without a fatty liver disease, e.g., the subject exhibits muscle atrophy without one or both of fibrosis or cirrhosis.

In some embodiments, e.g., of any of the methods described herein, the subject exhibits reverse lipid transport from adipose tissue to liver tissue.

In some embodiments, e.g., of any of the methods described herein, the subject is treated with a composition, e.g., any composition as described herein. In some embodiments of any of the aspects described herein:

-   -   (i) an amino acid entity (e.g., at least one, two, or three of         the amino acid entities) of     -   (a) is selected from Table 2; and/or     -   (ii) one or both of the R-amino acid entity and the Q-amino acid         entity are present at a higher amount (wt. %) than the L-amino         acid entity.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIGS. 1A-1B are graphs showing the effect of treatment with an amino acid composition (Amino Acid Composition A-1) on the NAFLD activity score, ballooning, and fibrosis in the STAM mouse model (FIG. 1A) and in the FATZO mouse model (FIG. 1B).

FIG. 2 is a schematic showing the metabolic symptoms of patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), and cirrhosis prior to administration of a composition comprising amino acid entities described herein (top) and the improvement in patients with NAFLD, NASH, and cirrhosis after administration of the composition (bottom).

FIG. 3 is a schematic showing treatment regimens for administration of an amino acid composition to STAM and FATZO mice.

FIGS. 4A-4E are a series of graphs and images showing the effect of treating STAM and FATZO mice with an amino acid composition on the NAFLD activity score (NAS), steatosis, inflammation, and liver fibrosis as determined with histology.

FIGS. 5A-5B are images showing the levels of liver unsaturated fatty acids and acylcarnitines of STAM mice treated with the amino acid composition.

FIG. 6 is an image of a gene map of the liver gene expression pattern following treatment with the amino acid composition in STAM mice showing activation of ACOX1.

FIGS. 7A-7D are images of gene maps of the liver gene expression pattern following treatment with the amino acid composition in STAM mice showing upstream regulator activation of anti-inflammatory IL-10 (FIG. 7A); inhibition of pro-inflammatory NF-kB (FIG. 7B), interferons, IL-1b, and IL-2 (FIG. 7C); and suppression of the fibrogenic TGF-b signaling pathway.

FIG. 8 is a series of graphs showing MCP-1 and MIP-1 protein levels, which are the ligands of C-C chemokine receptor types 2 (CCR2) and 5 (CCR5), following treatment with the amino acid composition.

FIGS. 9A-9L are a series of microscopy images shown lipid accumulation in primary human hepatocytes following treatment with vehicle control (FIGS. 9A-9D), a LIVRQNAC amino acid composition (FIGS. 9E-9H), or free fatty acids and TNFα (FF+TNF; FIGS. 9I-9L).

FIG. 10 is a series of microscopy images showing liver histology (H&E stain or Sirius Red stain for collagen deposition) from FATZO mice after administration of the indicated amino acid compositions.

FIG. 11 is a series of microscopy images showing liver histology from FATZO mice after administration of the indicated amino acid compositions.

FIG. 12 is a series of graphs showing NAFLD activity scores (top left panel), Sirius Red staining (top right panel), steatosis levels (bottom left panel), inflammation levels (bottom middle panel), and ballooning (bottom right panel) observed in fixed liver tissues from FATZO mice after administration of the indicated amino acid compositions.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The present invention provides, at least in part, methods and compositions comprising at least four different amino acid entities. In some embodiments, the composition is capable of one, two, three, four, five, or six or all of:

a) decreasing or preventing liver fibrosis;

b) decreasing or preventing liver injury;

c) decreasing or preventing hepatocyte inflammation;

d) improving, e.g., increasing, glucose tolerance;

e) decreasing or preventing steatosis;

f) decreasing or preventing hepatocyte ballooning; or

g) improving gut function.

In some embodiments, at least one amino acid entity in the compositions is not a peptide of more than 20 amino acid residues in length.

In some embodiments, the composition comprises a leucine (L)-amino acid entity, an arginine (R)-amino acid entity, a glutamine (Q)-amino acid entity; and an antioxidant or reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenger (e.g., a N-acetylcysteine (NAC) entity, e.g., NAC). In some embodiments, at least one amino acid entity is not a peptide of more than 20 amino acid residues in length. In some embodiments, the composition is capable of improving gut barrier function.

The composition described herein can be administered to a subject to provide a beneficial effect in one or both of improving liver function or treating (e.g., revering, reducing, ameliorating, or preventing) a liver disease (e.g., a fatty liver disease). A subject that may be treated with the composition include a subject having non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD; e.g., pediatric NAFLD), such as a subject with non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) or NAFL, or subjects with alcoholic fatty liver disease (AFLD), such as alcoholic steatohepatitis (ASH). In particular, the subject may have one, two, or more (e.g., all) of a high BMI, obesity, fibrosis, or cirrhosis. The subject may also have one, two, or more (e.g., all) of gut leakiness, gut dysbiosis, or gut microbiome disturbance.

The subject may exhibit an improvement in liver function or liver disease (e.g., NAFLD (e.g., NASH or NAFL) or AFLD (e.g., ASH)) after administration of a composition comprising a L-amino acid entity, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity; and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity, e.g., NAC. For example, the amino acid entity composition may be administered to the subject for a treatment period of, e.g., two weeks, three weeks, four weeks, five weeks, six weeks, seven weeks, eight weeks, nine weeks, 10 weeks, 11 weeks, 12 weeks, 13 weeks, 14 weeks, 15 weeks, 16 weeks, or longer at a dose of about 15 total grams per day to about 90 total grams per day (e.g., a total of about 48 g or a total of about 72 g per day).

Treatment with the amino acid entity composition can result in improved liver function in a subject, e.g., by one, two, three, four, five or more (e.g., all) of increasing free fatty acid and lipid metabolism, improving mitochondrial function, browning of white adipose tissue (WAT), decreasing reactive oxygen species (ROS), increasing levels of glutathione (GSH), decreasing hepatic inflammation, improving gut barrier function, increasing insulin secretion, or improving glucose tolerance.

In some embodiments, the composition is for use as a medicament in improving liver function in a subject (e.g., a subject with a liver disease (e.g., NAFLD (e.g., NASH or NAFL) or AFLD (e.g., ASH)). In some embodiments, the composition including amino acid entities is for use as a medicament in treating (e.g., reversing, reducing, ameliorating, or preventing) a liver disease (e.g., NAFLD (e.g., NASH or NAFL) or AFLD (e.g., ASH)) in a subject.

In some embodiments, the composition is for use in the manufacture of a medicament for improving liver function in a subject (e.g., a subject with a liver disease (e.g., NAFLD (e.g., NASH or NAFL) or AFLD (e.g., ASH)). In some embodiments, the composition including amino acid entities is for use in the manufacture of a medicament for treating (e.g., reversing, reducing, ameliorating, or preventing) a liver disease (e.g., NAFLD (e.g., NASH or NAFL) or AFLD (e.g., ASH)) in a subject.

Additionally, the compositions can be used in methods of dietary management of a subject (e.g., a subject without a liver disease or with a liver disease (e.g., NAFLD (e.g., NASH or NAFL) or AFLD (e.g., ASH)).

One embodiment provides a nutritional supplement, dietary formulation, functional food, medical food, food, or beverage comprising a composition described herein. Another embodiment provides a nutritional supplement, dietary formulation, functional food, medical food, food, or beverage comprising a composition described herein for use in the management of any of the diseases or disorders described herein.

One embodiment provides a method of maintaining or improving liver health comprising administering to a subject an effective amount of a composition described herein. Another embodiment provides a method of providing nutritional support or supplementation to a subject with a liver disease (e.g., NAFLD (e.g., NASH or NAFL) or AFLD (e.g., ASH)) comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a composition described herein. Yet another embodiment provides a method of providing nutritional supplementation that aids in the management of liver disease (e.g., NAFLD (e.g., NASH or NAFL) or AFLD (e.g., ASH)) comprising administering to the subject in need thereof an effective amount of a composition described herein.

Definitions

Terms used in the claims and specification are defined as set forth below unless otherwise specified.

It must be noted that, as used in the specification and the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an” and “the” include plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise.

As used herein, the term “amino acid entity” refers to an amino acid in one or both of free form or salt form, an amino acid residue of a peptide (e.g., of a dipeptide, oligopeptide, or polypeptide), a derivative of an amino acid, a precursor of an amino acid, or a metabolite of an amino acid.

As used herein the term “XXX amino acid entity” refers to an amino acid entity that if a free amino acid, comprises free XXX or XXX in salt form; if a peptide, refers to a peptide comprising an XXX residue; if a derivative, refers to a derivative of XXX; if a precursor, refers to a precursor of XXX; and if a metabolite, refers to a XXX metabolite. For example, where XXX is leucine (L), then L-amino acid entity refers to free L or L in salt form, a peptide comprising a L residue, a L derivative, a L precursor, or a metabolite of L; where XXX is arginine (R), then R-amino acid entity refers to free R or R in salt form, a peptide comprising a R residue, a R derivative, a R precursor, or a metabolite of R; where XXX is glutamine (Q), then Q-amino acid entity refers to free Q or Q in salt form, a peptide comprising a Q residue, a Q derivative, a Q precursor, or a metabolite of Q; and where XXX is N-acetylcysteine (NAC), then NAC-amino acid entity refers to free NAC or NAC in salt form, a peptide comprising a NAC residue, a NAC derivative, a NAC precursor, or a metabolite of NAC.

“About” and “approximately” shall generally mean an acceptable degree of error for the quantity measured given the nature or precision of the measurements. Exemplary degrees of error are within 20 percent (%), typically, within 10%, and more typically, within 5% of a given value or range of values.

An “amino acid” refers to an organic compound having an amino group (—NH₂), a carboxylic acid group (—C(═O)OH), and a side chain bonded through a central carbon atom, and includes essential and non-essential amino acids, as well as natural and unnatural amino acids.

The proteogenic amino acids, shown below, are known by three- and one-letter abbreviations in addition to their full names. For a given amino acid, these abbreviations are used interchangeably herein. For example, Leu, L or leucine all refer to the amino acid leucine; Ile, I or isoleucine all refer to the amino acid isoleucine; Val, V or valine all refer to the amino acid valine; Arg, R or arginine all refer to the amino acid arginine; and Gln, Q or glutamine all refer to the amino acid glutamine.

Likewise, the non-natural amino acid derivative N-acetylcysteine may be referred to interchangeably by “NAC” or “N-acetylcysteine.”

Amino acids may be present as D- or L-isomers. Unless otherwise indicated, amino acids referred to herein are L-isomers of amino acids.

TABLE 1 Amino acid names and abbreviations. Amino acid Three-letter One-letter Alanine Ala A Arginine Arg R Asparagine Asn N Aspartic acid Asp D Cysteine Cys C Glutamic acid Glu E Glutamine Gln Q Glycine Gly G Histidine His H Isoleucine Ile I Leucine Leu L Lysine Lys K Methionine Met M Phenylalanine Phe F Proline Pro P Serine Ser S Threonine Thr T Tryptophan Trp W Tyrosine Tyr Y Valine Val V

The term “effective amount” as used herein means an amount of an amino acid, or pharmaceutical composition which is sufficient enough to significantly and positively modify the symptoms and/or conditions to be treated (e.g., provide a positive clinical response). The effective amount of an active ingredient for use in a pharmaceutical composition will vary with the particular condition being treated, the severity of the condition, the duration of treatment, the nature of concurrent therapy, the particular active ingredient(s) being employed, the particular pharmaceutically-acceptable excipient(s) and/or carrier(s) utilized, and like factors with the knowledge and expertise of the attending physician.

A “pharmaceutical composition” described herein comprises at least one amino acid and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or excipient. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is used as a therapeutic, a nutraceutical, a medical food, or as a supplement.

The term “pharmaceutically acceptable” as used herein, refers to amino acids, materials, excipients, compositions and/or dosage forms which are, within the scope of sound medical judgment, suitable for use in contact with the tissues of human beings and animals without excessive toxicity, irritation, allergic response, or other problem or complication, commensurate with a reasonable benefit/risk ratio.

A composition, formulation or product is “therapeutic” if it provides a beneficial clinical effect. A beneficial clinical effect can be shown by lessening the progression of a disease and/or alleviating one or more symptoms of the disease.

A “unit dose” or “unit dosage” as used herein means an amount or dose of medicine prepared in an individual packet or container for convenience, safety, or monitoring. A “unit dose” or “unit dosage” comprises the drug product or drug products in the form in which they are marketed for use, with a specific mixture of active ingredients and inactive components (excipients), in a particular configuration (such as a capsule shell, for example), and apportioned into a particular dose.

As used herein, the terms “treat,” “treating,” or “treatment” of a liver disease refer in one embodiment, to ameliorating, e.g., NAFLD (e.g., NASH or NAFL) or AFLD (e.g., ASH), (i.e., slowing or arresting or reducing the development of the disease or at least one of the clinical symptoms thereof). In another embodiment, “treat,” “treating,” or “treatment” refers to alleviating or ameliorating at least one physical parameter including those which may not be discernible by the patient. In yet another embodiment, “treat,” “treating,” or “treatment” refers to modulating a symptom of a liver disease (e.g., NAFLD (e.g., NASH or NAFL) or AFLD (e.g., ASH)), either physically, (e.g., stabilization of a discernible symptom), physiologically, (e.g., stabilization of a physical parameter), or both. In yet another embodiment, “treat,” “treating,” or “treatment” refers to preventing or delaying the onset or development or progression of a liver disease (e.g., NAFLD (e.g., NASH or NAFL) or AFLD (e.g., ASH)).

Determination of Amino Acid Weight Percent and Amino Acid Ratios in a Composition

The weight ratio of a particular amino acid or particular amino acids in a composition or mixture of amino acids is the ratio of the weight of the particular amino acid or amino acids in the composition or mixture compared to the total weight of amino acids present in the composition or mixture. This value is calculated by dividing the weight of the particular amino acid or of the particular amino acids in the composition or mixture by the weight of all amino acids present in the composition or mixture.

Compositions Comprising Amino Acid Entities

The present disclosure provides compositions, e.g., pharmaceutical compositions, comprising amino acid entities. These pharmaceutical compositions are made up of amino acid entities including amino acids in one or both of free form or salt form, amino acid residues of a peptide (e.g., of a dipeptide, oligopeptide, or polypeptide), derivatives of an amino acid, precursors of an amino acid, or metabolites of an amino acid. For example, the compositions can include a leucine (L)-amino acid entity, a arginine (R)-amino acid entity, a glutamine (Q)-amino acid entity; and an antioxidant or reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenger, e.g., a N-acetylcysteine (NAC) entity, e.g., NAC (Table 2). In particular, at least one amino acid entity is not a peptide of more than 20 amino acid residues in length.

TABLE 2 Amino acid entities include amino acids, precursors, metabolites, and derivatives of the compositions described herein. Exemplary Amino Acid Precursors Metabolites Derivatives L L-Leucine Oxo-leucine HMB (beta- D-Leucine; N- hydroxy-beta- Acetyl-Leucine methybutyrate); Oxo-leucine; Isovaleryl-CoA I L-Isoleucine 2-Oxo-3-methyl- 2-Oxo-3-methyl- D-Isoleucine; N- valerate; Threonine valerate; Acetyl- Methylbutyrl-CoA Isoleucine V L-Valine 2-Oxo-valerate Isobutryl-CoA; 3- D-Valine; N- HIB-CoA; 3-HIB Acetyl-Valine R L-Arginine Argininosuccinate; Ornithine; D-Arginine; N- Citrulline; Aspartate; Citrulline; Acetyl-Arginine; Glutamate Agmatine; Creatine Q L-Glutamine Glutamate Carbamoyl-P; D-Glutamine; N- Glutamate Acetyl- Glutamine; NAC N- Serine; Acetylserine; Glutathione; D-Cysteine; L- Acetylcysteine Cystathionine; Cystathionine; Cysteine; Homocysteine; Cystine; Methionine Cysteamine S L-Serine Phosphoserine, P- Glycine, hydroxypyruvate, L- Tryptophan, Glycine Acetylserine, Cystathionine, Phosphatidylserine

It is contemplated that alternatives to serine that can be an S-amino acid entity include, for example, glycine, threonine, or a combination of serine and glycine (e.g., a 1:1 ratio of serine and glycine).

In some embodiments, the total weight of the L-amino acid entity, R-amino acid entity, Q-amino acid entity; and ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity, e.g., NAC, is greater than the total wt. of other amino acid entities in the composition. In certain embodiments, two, three, or more (e.g., all) of methionine (M), trytophan (W), or valine (V) may be absent from the amino acid entity composition, or if present, are present at less than 2 weight (wt.) %.

In some embodiments, one or both of the R-amino acid entity and the Q-amino acid entity are present at a higher amount (wt. %) than the L-amino acid entity. The R-amino acid entity can be present, e.g., at an amount of at least 2 wt. %, at least 3 wt. %, at least 4 wt. %, at least 5 wt. %, at least 6 wt. %, at least 7 wt. %, or at least 8 wt. % greater than the L-amino acid entity. The Q-amino acid entity can be present, e.g., at an amount of at least 2 wt. %, at least 3 wt. %, at least 4 wt. %, or at least 5 wt. % greater than the L-amino acid entity.

In some embodiments, the L-amino acid entity is selected from the group consisting of a precursor, a metabolite, and a derivative. In certain embodiments, the L-amino acid entity is selected from the group consisting of L-leucine, β-hydroxy-β-methybutyrate (HMB), oxo-leucine, isovaleryl-CoA, D-leucine, and n-acetylleucine. In one embodiment, the L-amino acid entity is L-leucine. In another embodiment, the L-amino acid entity is HMB.

In some embodiments, the R-amino acid entity is selected from the group consisting of a precursor, a metabolite, and a derivative. In certain embodiments, the R-amino acid entity is selected from the group consisting of L-arginine, D-arginine, ornithine, argininosuccinate, citrulline, aspartate, glutamate, agmatine, and N-acetyl-arginine. In one embodiment, the R-amino acid entity is L-arginine. In one embodiment, the R-amino acid entity is creatine. In another embodiment, the R-amino acid entity is ornithine.

In some embodiments, the Q-amino acid entity is selected from the group consisting of a precursor, a metabolite, and a derivative. In certain embodiments, the Q-amino acid entity is selected from the group consisting of L-glutamine, glutamate, carbamoyl-P, glutamate, D-glutamine, and n-acetylglutamine. In one embodiment, the Q-amino acid entity is L-glutamine.

In some embodiments, the NAC-amino acid entity is selected from the group consisting of a precursor, a metabolite, and a derivative. In certain embodiments, the NAC-amino acid entity is selected from the group consisting NAC, serine, acetylserine, cystathionine, cystathionine, homocysteine, methionine, glutathione, D-cysteine, and L-cysteine. In one embodiment, the NAC entity is NAC. In one embodiment, the NAC entity is glutathione.

In various embodiments, the composition further comprises one or two additional branched-chain amino acid (BCAA)-entities, e.g., one or both of an isoleucine (I)-amino acid-entity and a valine (V)-amino acid-entity. In some embodiments, both the I-amino acid-entity and the V-amino acid-entity are present. In certain embodiments, the L-entity is present at a higher amount (% by weight) than one or both of the I-amino acid-entity and the V-amino acid-entity (e.g., the L-entity is present at an amount of at least 10 wt. %, at least 15 wt. %, at least 20 wt. %, at least 25 wt. %, at least 30 wt. %, at least 35 wt. %, at least 40 wt. %, at least 45 wt. %, or at least 50 wt. % greater than one or both of the I-amino acid-entity and the V-amino acid-entity).

In some embodiments, the I-amino acid entity is selected from the group consisting of a salt, a precursor, a metabolite, and a derivative. In certain embodiments, the I-amino acid entity is selected from the group consisting of L-isoleucine, 2-oxo-3-methyl-valerate, threonine, 2-oxo-3-methyl-valerate, methylbutyrl-CoA, D-isoleucine, and N-acetyl-isoleucine. In one embodiment, the I-amino acid entity is L-isoleucine.

In some embodiments, the V-amino acid entity is selected from the group consisting of a precursor, a metabolite, and a derivative. In certain embodiments, the V-amino acid entity is selected from the group consisting of L-valine, 2-oxo-valerate, isobutryl-CoA, 3-HIB-CoA, 3-HIB, D-valine, and N-acetyl-valine. In one embodiment, the I-amino acid entity is L-valine.

In some embodiments, the composition comprises L-leucine or a leucine metabolite (e.g., HMB), L-arginine or an L-arginine metabolite (e.g., creatine or ornithine), L-glutamine, and NAC or a NAC metabolite, e.g., glutathione. In one embodiment, the composition comprises L-leucine, L-arginine, L-glutamine, and NAC. In one embodiment, the composition comprises HMB, creatine, L-glutamine, and glutathione. In one embodiment, the composition comprises HMB, ornithine, L-glutamine, and glutathione. In one embodiment, the composition comprises HMB, L-arginine, L-glutamine, and NAC. In one embodiment, the composition comprises L-leucine, creatine, L-glutamine, and NAC. In one embodiment, the composition comprises L-leucine, ornithine, L-glutamine, and NAC. In one embodiment, the composition comprises L-leucine, L-arginine, L-glutamine, and glutathione.

In some embodiments, the weight (wt.) ratio of the L-amino acid entity, the R-amino acid entity, the Q-amino acid entity, and the NAC-amino acid entity is about 0.5 to 3:0.5 to 4:1 to 4:0.1 to 2.5. In one embodiment, the wt. ratio of the L-amino acid entity, the R-amino acid entity, the Q-amino acid entity, and the NAC-amino acid entity is about 1:1.5:2:0.15.

In some embodiments, the wt. ratio of the L-amino acid entity, the I-amino acid entity, the V-amino acid entity, the R-amino acid entity, the Q-amino acid entity, and the NAC-amino acid entity is about 0.5 to 2:0.1 to 1:0.1 to 1:0.5 to 3:0.5 to 4:0.1 to 0.5. In an embodiment, the wt. ratio of the L-amino acid entity, the I-amino acid entity, the V-amino acid entity, the R-amino acid entity, the Q-amino acid entity, and the NAC-amino acid entity is about 1:0.5:0.5:1.5:2:0.15.

In various embodiments, the total wt. of amino acids present is about 2 g to about 60 g. In certain embodiments, the total wt. of amino acids present is about 6 g, about 12 g, about 18 g, about 24 g, or about 48 g. In one embodiment, the total wt. of amino acids present is about 6 g. In one embodiment, the total wt. of amino acids present is about 12 g. In one embodiment, the total wt. of amino acids present is about 18 g. In an embodiment, the total wt. of amino acids present is about 24 g. In one embodiment, the total wt. of amino acids present is about 48 g.

In some embodiments, the composition comprises about 0.5 g to about 10 g of the L-amino acid entity, about 0.25 g to about 5 g of the I-amino acid entity, about 0.25 g to about 5 g of the V-amino acid entity, about 1 g to about 20 g of the R-amino acid entity, about 1 g to about 20 g of the Q-amino acid entity, and about 0.1 g to about 5 g of the NAC-amino acid entity. In an embodiment, the composition comprises about 1 g of the L-amino acid entity, about 0.5 g of the I-amino acid entity, about 0.5 g of V-amino acid entity, about 1.5 g of R-amino acid entity, about 2 g of Q-amino acid entity, and about 0.15 g of NAC-amino acid entity. In an embodiment, the composition comprises about 2 g of the L-amino acid entity, about 1 g of the I-amino acid entity, about 1 g of the V-amino acid entity, about 3 g of the R-amino acid entity, about 4 g of the Q-amino acid entity, and about 0.3 g of the NAC-amino acid entity. In an embodiment, the composition comprises about 4 g of the L-amino acid entity, about 2 g of the I-amino acid entity, about 2 g of the V-amino acid entity, about 6 g of the R-amino acid entity, about 8 g of the Q-amino acid entity, and about 0.6 g of the NAC-amino acid entity.

In some embodiments, the the amino acids comprise about 10 wt % to about 30 wt % leucine, about 5 wt % to about 15 wt % isoleucine, about 5 wt % to about 15 wt % valine, about 15 wt % to about 40 wt % arginine, about 20 wt % to about 50 wt % glutamine, and about 1 wt % to about 8 wt % n-acetylcysteine. In certain embodiments, the amino acids comprise about 16 wt % to about 18 wt % leucine, about 7 wt % to about 9 wt % isoleucine, about 7 wt % to about 9 wt % valine, about 28 wt % to about 32 wt % arginine, about 31 wt % to about 34 wt % glutamine, and about 1 wt % to about 5 wt % n-acetylcysteine. In an embodiment, the amino acids comprise about 16.8 wt % leucine, about 8.4 wt % isoleucine, about 8.4 wt % valine, about 30.4 wt % arginine, about 33.6 wt % glutamine, and about 2.5 wt % n-acetylcysteine.

In any of the foregoing embodiments, at least one amino acid entity is a free amino acid, e.g., one, two, three, or more (e.g., all) amino acid entities are a free amino acid. In some embodiments, the L-amino acid entity, the R-amino acid entity, the Q-amino acid entity, and the NAC-amino acid entity is a free amino acid entity. In certain embodiment, the L-amino acid entity, the I-amino acid entity, the V-amino acid entity, the R-amino acid entity, the Q-amino acid entity, and the NAC-amino acid entity a free amino acid.

In any of the foregoing embodiments, at least one amino acid entity is in a salt form, e.g., one, two, three, or more (e.g., all) of the amino acid entities is in a salt form. In some embodiments, wherein the L-amino acid entity, the R-amino acid entity, the Q-amino acid entity, and the NAC-amino acid entity is in a salt form. In certain embodiments, the L-amino acid entity, the I-amino acid entity, the V-amino acid entity, the R-amino acid entity, the Q-amino acid entity, and the NAC-amino acid entity is in a salt form.

In any of the foregoing embodiments, the composition comprises a combination of 2 to 20 different amino acid entities, e.g., 5 to 15 different amino acid entities.

In some embodiments, the NAC entity is more stable than cysteine. In certain embodiments, the NAC entity does not comprise cysteine.

In some embodiments, the composition further comprises one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, or more (e.g., all) or more of serine, glycine, glutamine, HMB, arginine, L-leucine, citrulline, glutamine, ornithine, L-cysteine, cystine, or glutathione.

In some embodiments, the composition further comprises serine.

In some embodiments, the composition further comprises glycine.

In some embodiments, the composition further comprises carnitine.

In some embodiments, the composition includes arginine, glutamine, N-acetylcysteine, and a branched-chain amino acid (BCAA) chosen from one, two, or all of leucine, isoleucine, and valine.

In some embodiments, the BCAA is leucine.

In some embodiments, the BCAA is isoleucine.

In some embodiments, the BCAA is valine.

In some embodiments, the BCAA is leucine and isoleucine.

In some embodiments, the BCAA is leucine and valine.

In some embodiments, the BCAA is isoleucine and valine.

In some embodiments, the BCAA is leucine, isoleucine, and valine.

In particular, the composition may consist of leucine, isoleucine, valine, arginine, glutamine, and N-acetylcysteine.

In some embodiments, the amino acids leucine, isoleucine, valine, arginine, glutamine and N-acetylcysteine are present in a weight ratio of about 1:0.5:0.5:1.5:2:0.1-0.3. In some embodiments, the amino acids leucine, isoleucine, valine, arginine, glutamine and N-acetylcysteine are present in a weight ratio of about 1:0.5:0.5:1.5:2:0.15. In some embodiments, the amino acids leucine, isoleucine, valine, arginine, glutamine and N-acetylcysteine are present in a weight ratio of about 1:0.5:0.5:1.5:2:0.25.

In some embodiments, the amino acids leucine, isoleucine, valine, arginine (e.g., arginine HCl), glutamine and N-acetylcysteine are present in a weight ratio of about 1:0.5:0.5:1.5-1.81:2:0.1-0.3. In some embodiments, the amino acids leucine, isoleucine, valine, arginine (e.g., arginine HCl), glutamine and N-acetylcysteine are present in a weight ratio of about 1:0.5:0.5:1.5-1.81:2:0.15. In some embodiments, the amino acids leucine, isoleucine, valine, arginine (e.g., arginine HCl), glutamine, and N-acetylcysteine are present in a weight ratio of about 1:0.5:0.5:1.5-1.81:2:0.25.

In some embodiments, the amino acids leucine, isoleucine, valine, arginine (e.g., arginine HCl), glutamine and N-acetylcysteine are present in a weight ratio of about 1:0.5:0.5:1.81:2:0.1-0.3. In some embodiments, the amino acids leucine, isoleucine, valine, arginine (e.g., arginine HCl), glutamine and N-acetylcysteine are present in a weight ratio of about 1:0.5:0.5:1.81:2:0.15. In some embodiments, the amino acids leucine, isoleucine, valine, arginine (e.g., arginine HCl), glutamine, and N-acetylcysteine are present in a weight ratio of about 1:0.5:0.5:1.81:2:0.25.

In some embodiments, the amino acids leucine, isoleucine, valine, arginine HCl, glutamine and N-acetylcysteine are present in a weight ratio of about 1:0.5:0.5:1.5:2:0.1 to 0.3. In some embodiments, the amino acids leucine, isoleucine, valine, arginine HCl, glutamine and N-acetylcysteine are present in a weight ratio of about 1:0.5:0.5:1.5:2:0.25. In some embodiments, the amino acids leucine, isoleucine, valine, arginine HCl, glutamine and N-acetylcysteine are present in a weight ratio of 1:0.5:0.5:1.5:2:0.15.

In some embodiments, the amino acids leucine, isoleucine, valine, arginine HCl, glutamine and N-acetylcysteine are present in a weight ratio of about 1:0.5:0.5:1.81:2:0.1 to 0.3. In some embodiments, the amino acids leucine, isoleucine, valine, arginine HCl, glutamine and N-acetylcysteine are present in a weight ratio of about 1:0.5:0.5:1.81:2:0.25. In some embodiments, the amino acids leucine, isoleucine, valine, arginine HCl, glutamine and N-acetylcysteine are present in a weight ratio of 1:0.5:0.5:1.81:2:0.15.

In some embodiments, the amino acids leucine, isoleucine, valine, arginine, glutamine and N-acetylcysteine are present in a weight ratio of about 1:0.5:0.5:1.81:2:0.1-0.3. In some embodiments, the amino acids leucine, isoleucine, valine, arginine, glutamine and N-acetylcysteine are present in a weight ratio of about 1:0.5:0.5:1.81:2:0.15. In some embodiments, the amino acids leucine, isoleucine, valine, arginine, glutamine, and N-acetylcysteine are present in a weight ratio of about 1:0.5:0.5:1.81:2:0.25.

In some embodiments, the amino acids leucine, isoleucine, valine, arginine, glutamine and N-acetylcysteine are present in a weight ratio of about 1:0.5:0.5:1.5:2:0.1 to 0.3. In some embodiments, the amino acids leucine, isoleucine, valine, arginine, glutamine and N-acetylcysteine are present in a weight ratio of about 1:0.5:0.5:1.5:2:0.25. In some embodiments, the amino acids leucine, isoleucine, valine, arginine, glutamine and N-acetylcysteine are present in a weight ratio of 1:0.5:0.5:1.5:2:0.15.

In some embodiments, a total weight (wt) of the amino acids is about 2 g to about 60 g.

In some embodiments, the total weight of amino acids present is about 5 g, about 6 g, about 7 g, about 11 g, about 12 g, about 13 g, about 14 g, about 15 g, about 16 g, about 17 g, about 18 g, about 19 g, about 20 g, about 21 g, about 22 g, about 23 g, about 24 g, about 25 g, about 26 g, about 27 g, about 28 g, about 29 g, about 30 g, about 31 g, about 32 g, about 33 g, about 34 g, about 35 g, about 36 g, about 37 g, about 38 g, about 39 g, about 40 g, about 41 g, about 42 g, about 43 g, about 44 g, about 45 g, about 46 g, about 47 g, about 48 g, about 49 g, or about 50 g.

In certain embodiments, the total wt of the amino acids is about 6 g.

In certain embodiments, the total wt of the amino acids is about 12 g.

In certain embodiments, the total wt of the amino acids is about 18 g.

In certain embodiments, the total wt of the amino acids is about 24 g.

In certain embodiments, the total wt of the amino acids is about 48 g.

In some embodiments, the composition includes about 0.5 g to about 10 g of leucine, about 0.25 g to about 5 g of isoleucine, about 0.25 g to about 5 g of valine, about 1 g to about 20 g of arginine, about 1 g to about 20 g of glutamine, and about 0.1 g to about 5 g of N-acetylcysteine.

In some embodiments, the composition includes at least 1 g of leucine, at least 0.5 g of isoleucine, at least 0.5 g of valine, at least 1.5 g of arginine (or 1.81 g of arginine HCl), at least 2 g of glutamine, and at least 0.15 g of N-acetylcysteine.

In some embodiments, the composition includes about 1 g of leucine, about 0.5 g of isoleucine, about 0.5 g of valine, about 1.5 g of arginine (or 1.81 g of arginine HCl), about 2 g of glutamine, and about 0.15 g of N-acetylcysteine.

In some embodiments, the composition includes at least 2 g of leucine, at least 1 g of isoleucine, at least 1 g of valine, at least 3.0 g of arginine (or 3.62 g of arginine HCl), at least 4 g of glutamine, and at least 0.3 g of N-acetylcysteine.

In some embodiments, the composition includes about 2 g of leucine, about 1 g of isoleucine, about 1 g of valine, about 3.0 g of arginine (or 3.62 g of arginine HCl), about 4 g of glutamine, and about 0.3 g of N-acetylcysteine.

In some embodiments, the composition includes at least 4 g of leucine, at least 2 g of isoleucine, at least 2 g of valine, at least 6.0 g or arginine (or 7.24 g of arginine HCl), at least 8 g of glutamine, and at least 0.6 g of N-acetylcysteine.

In some embodiments, the composition includes about 4 g of leucine, about 2 g of isoleucine, about 2 g of valine, about 6.0 g or arginine (or 7.24 g of arginine HCl), about 8 g of glutamine, and about 0.6 g of N-acetylcysteine.

In some embodiments, the composition includes at least 1.0 g of leucine, at least 0.5 g of isoleucine, at least 0.5 g of valine, at least 1.5 g of arginine, at least 2.0 g of glutamine, or at least 0.15 g of N-acetylcysteine. In some embodiments, the composition includes about 1.0 g of leucine, about 0.5 g of isoleucine, about 0.5 g of valine, about 1.5 g of arginine, about 2.0 g of glutamine, or about 0.15 g of N-acetylcysteine.

In some embodiments, the composition includes at least 1.0 g of leucine, at least 0.5 g of isoleucine, at least 0.5 g of valine, at least 1.5 g of arginine, at least 2.0 g of glutamine, and at least 0.25 g of N-acetylcysteine. In some embodiments, the composition includes about 1.0 g of leucine, about 0.5 g of isoleucine, about 0.5 g of valine, about 1.5 g of arginine, about 2.0 g of glutamine, and about 0.25 g of N-acetylcysteine.

In some embodiments, the amino acids of the composition include about 10 wt % to about 30 wt % leucine, about 5 wt % to about 15 wt % isoleucine, about 5 wt % to about 15 wt % valine, about 15 wt % to about 40 wt % arginine, about 20 wt % to about 50 wt % glutamine, and about 1 wt % to about 8 wt % n-acetylcysteine.

In some embodiments, the amino acids of the composition include about 16 wt % to about 18 wt % leucine, about 7 wt % to about 9 wt % isoleucine, about 7 wt % to about 9 wt % valine, about 28 wt % to about 32 wt % arginine, about 31 wt % to about 34 wt % glutamine, and about 1 wt % to about 5 wt % n-acetylcysteine.

In some embodiments, the amino acids of the composition include about 16.8 wt % leucine, about 8.4 wt % isoleucine, about 8.4 wt % valine, about 30.4 wt % arginine, about 33.6 wt % glutamine, and about 2.5 wt % n-acetylcysteine.

In some embodiments, the composition comprises one or more excipients selected from the group consisting of: citric acid, lecithin, a sweetener, a dispersion enhancer, a flavoring, a bitterness masking agent, and a natural or artificial coloring.

In some embodiments, the composition comprises citric acid.

In some embodiments, the composition is in the form of a solid, powder, solution, or gel. In certain embodiments, the composition is in the form of a powder (e.g. in a packet)

In some embodiments, the composition includes one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients, wherein the amino acids comprise leucine, arginine, glutamine, and N-acetylcysteine. An aspect of the present disclosure provides a composition comprising free amino acids and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients, wherein the amino acids consist of leucine, arginine, glutamine, and N-acetylcysteine. In some embodiments, the amino acids leucine, arginine, glutamine, N-acetylcysteine and glycine are present in a weight ratio of 1:1.5:2:0.15. In some embodiments, the composition comprises at least 1.0 g of leucine, at least 1.5 g of arginine, at least 2.0 g of glutamine, or at least 0.15 g of N-acetylcysteine. In some embodiments, the composition comprises at least 1.5 g of arginine and at least 2.0 g of glutamine. In some embodiments, the amino acids leucine, arginine, glutamine, and N-acetylcysteine are present in weight % of each compared to total amino acid weight of 20.4 to 22.6%, 30.6 to 33.9%, 40.9 to 45.2%, and 3.1 to 3.4%, respectively. In some embodiments, the amino acids leucine, arginine, glutamine, and N-acetylcysteine, are present in weight % of each compared to total amino acid weight of 21.5%, 32.3%, 43.0%, and 3.2%, respectively.

In some embodiments, the composition further includes a farnesoid X receptor (FXR) agonist, a stearoyl CoA desaturase inhibitor, a CCR2 and CCR5 chemokine antagonist, a PPAR alpha and delta agonist, a caspase inhibitor, a galectin-3 inhibitor, an acetyl CoA carboxylase inhibitor, or an ileal sodium bile acid co-transporter inhibitor. In some embodiments, the composition further comprises an FXR agonist. In certain embodiments, the FXR agonist is obeticholic acid. In some embodiments, the composition further includes one or more of: LMB-763, LJN-452, emricasan, and cenicriviroc.

An exemplary Amino Acid Composition includes leucine, isoleucine, valine, arginine HCl, glutamine, and N-acetylcysteine as its amino acid entities in a wt. ratio of 1:0.5:0.5:1.81:2:0.15 (Table 3). An exemplary Amino Acid Composition includes leucine, isoleucine, valine, arginine, glutamine, and N-acetylcysteine as its amino acid entities in a wt. ratio of 1:0.5:0.5:1.5:2:0.15 (Table 4).

TABLE 3 Exemplary amino acid components of the composition including Arginine HCl. Amino acid wt. ratio wt. % g/packet g dose #1 g dose #2 Leucine 1 16.78 1.00 g 2 g 4 g Isoleucine 0.5 8.39 0.50 g 1 g 2 g Valine 0.5 8.39 0.50 g 1 g 2 g Arginine HCl 1.81 30.37 1.81 g 3.62 g 7.24 g Glutamine 2 33.56 2.00 g 4 g 8 g N-acetylcysteine 0.15 2.52 0.15 g 0.3 g 0.6 g Total amino acids 5.96 g ~12 g ~24 g

TABLE 4 Exemplary amino acid components of the composition including Arginine. Amino acid wt. ratio wt. % g/packet g dose #1 g dose #2 Leucine 1 17.70 1.00 g 2 4 Isoleucine 0.5 8.85 0.50 g 1 2 Valine 0.5 8.85 0.50 g 1 2 Arginine 1.5 26.55  1.5 g 3 6 Glutamine 2 35.4 2.00 g 4 8 N-acetylcysteine 0.15 2.65 0.15 g 0.3 0.6 Total amino acids 5.65 g 11.3 g 22.6 g

An exemplary Amino Acid Composition includes leucine, isoleucine, valine, arginine HCl, glutamine, and N-acetylcysteine as its amino acid entities in a wt. ratio of 1:0.5:0.5:0.905:2:0.15 (Table 5). An exemplary Amino Acid Composition includes leucine, isoleucine, valine, arginine, glutamine, and N-acetylcysteine as its amino acid entities in a wt. ratio of 1:0.5:0.5:0.75:2:0.15 (Table 6).

TABLE 5 Exemplary amino acid components of the composition including Arginine HCl. Amino acid wt. ratio wt. % g/packet g dose #1 g dose #2 Leucine 1 19.78 1.00 g 2 g 4 g Isoleucine 0.5 9.89 0.50 g 1 g 2 g Valine 0.5 9.89 0.50 g 1 g 2 g Arginine HCl 0.905 17.90 0.905 g  1.81 g 3.62 g Glutamine 2 39.56 2.00 g 4 g 8 g N-acetylcysteine 0.15 2.97 0.15 g 0.3 g 0.6 g Total amino acids 5.06 g ~10 g ~20 g

TABLE 6 Exemplary amino acid components of the composition including Arginine. Amino acid wt. ratio wt. % g/packet g dose #1 g dose #2 Leucine 1 20.41 1.00 g 2 4 Isoleucine 0.5 10.20 0.50 g 1 2 Valine 0.5 10.20 0.50 g 1 2 Arginine 0.75 15.31 0.75 g 1.5 3 Glutamine 2 40.82 2.00 g 4 8 N-acetylcysteine 0.15 3.06 0.15 g 0.3 0.6 Total amino acids  4.9 g 9.8 g 19.6 g

An exemplary Amino Acid Composition includes leucine, isoleucine, valine, arginine HCl, glutamine, and N-acetylcysteine as its amino acid entities in a wt. ratio of 1:0.5:0.25:0.905:1:0.225 (Table 7). An exemplary Amino Acid Composition includes leucine, isoleucine, valine, arginine, glutamine, and N-acetylcysteine as its amino acid entities in a wt. ratio of 1:0.5:0.25:0.75:1:0.225 (Table 8).

TABLE 7 Exemplary amino acid components of the composition including Arginine HCl. Amino acid wt. ratio wt. % g/packet g dose #1 g dose #2 Leucine 1 25.77 1.00 g 2 g 4 g Isoleucine 0.5 12.89 0.50 g 1 g 2 g Valine 0.25 6.44 0.25 g 0.50 g 1 g Arginine HCl 0.905 23.32 0.905 g  1.81 g 3.62 g Glutamine 1 25.77 1.00 g 2 g 4 g N-acetylcysteine 0.225 5.80 0.225 g  0.45 g 0.9 g Total amino acids 3.88 g 7.76 g 15.52 g

TABLE 8 Exemplary amino acid components of the composition including Arginine. Amino acid wt. ratio wt. % g/packet g dose #1 g dose #2 Leucine 1 26.85 1.00 g 2 4 Isoleucine 0.5 13.42 0.50 g 1 2 Valine 0.25 6.71 0.25 g 0.5 1 Arginine 0.75 20.13 0.75 g 1.5 3 Glutamine 1 26.85 1.00 g 2 4 N-acetylcysteine 0.225 6.04 0.225 g  0.45 0.9 Total amino acids 3.725 g  7.45 g 14.9 g

An exemplary Amino Acid Composition includes leucine, isoleucine, valine, arginine HCl, glutamine, N-acetylcysteine, and serine as its amino acid entities in a wt. ratio of 1:0.5:0.25:0.905:1:0.225:0.667 (Table 9). An exemplary Amino Acid Composition includes leucine, isoleucine, valine, arginine, glutamine, N-acetylcysteine, and serine as its amino acid entities in a wt. ratio of 1:0.5:0.25:0.75:1:0.225:1.5 (Table 10).

TABLE 9 Exemplary amino acid components of the composition including Arginine HCl. Amino acid wt. ratio wt. % g/packet g dose #1 g dose #2 Leucine 1 18.59 1.00 g 2 g 4 g Isoleucine 0.5 9.29 0.50 g 1 g 2 g Valine 0.25 4.65 0.25 g 0.50 g 1 g Arginine HCl 0.905 16.82 0.905 g 1.81 g 3.62 g Glutamine 1 18.59 1.00 g 2 g 4 g N-acetylcysteine 0.225 4.18 0.225 g 0.45 g 0.9 g Serine 1.5 27.88 1.5 3 6 Total amino acids 5.38 g 10.76 g 21.52 g

TABLE 10 Exemplary amino acid components of the composition including Arginine. Amino acid wt. ratio wt. % g/packet g dose #1 g dose #2 Leucine 1 19.14 1.00 g 2 4 Isoleucine 0.5 9.57 0.50 g 1 2 Valine 0.25 4.78 0.25 g 0.5 1 Arginine 0.75 14.35 0.75 g 1.5 3 Glutamine 1 19.14 1.00 g 2 4 N-acetylcysteine 0.225 4.31 0.225 g  0.45 0.9 Serine 1.5 28.71 1.5  3 6 Total amino acids 5.225 10.45 20.9

An exemplary Amino Acid Composition includes leucine, isoleucine, valine, arginine HCl, glutamine, N-acetylcysteine, and serine as its amino acid entities in a wt. ratio of 1:0.5:0.25:0.905:1:0.225:0.667 (Table 11). An exemplary Amino Acid Composition includes leucine, isoleucine, valine, arginine, glutamine, N-acetylcysteine, and serine as its amino acid entities in a wt. ratio of 1:0.5:0.25:0.75:1:0.225:1.667 (Table 12).

TABLE 11 Exemplary amino acid components of the composition including Arginine HCl. Amino acid wt. ratio wt. % g/packet g dose #1 g dose #2 Leucine 1 18.02 1.00 g 2 g 4 g Isoleucine 0.5 9.01 0.50 g 1 g 2 g Valine 0.25 4.50 0.25 g 0.50 g 1 g Arginine HCl 0.905 16.31 0.905 g  1.81 g 3.62 g Glutamine 1 18.02 1.00 g 2 g 4 g N-acetylcysteine 0.225 4.05 0.225 g  0.45 g 0.9 g Serine 1.667 30.09 1.67 g 3.33 g 6.67 g Total amino acids 5.55 g 11.09 g 22.19 g

TABLE 12 Exemplary amino acid components of the composition including Arginine. Amino acid wt. ratio wt. % g/packet g dose #1 g dose #2 Leucine 1 18.54 1.00 g 2 4 Isoleucine 0.5 9.27 0.50 g 1 2 Valine 0.25 4.64 0.25 g 0.5 1 Arginine 0.75 13.91 0.75 g 1.5 3 Glutamine 1 18.54 1.00 g 2 4 N-acetylcysteine 0.225 4.17 0.225 g  0.45 0.9 Serine 1.667 30.92 1.67 g  3.33 g  6.67 g Total amino acids 5.395 g  10.78 g 21.57 g

The disclosure also provides a composition including at least four different amino acid entities (e.g., four, five, six, or more different amino acid entitites), in which the composition is capable of one, two, three, four, five, or all of:

a) one or both of decreasing or preventing one or both of liver fibrosis or liver injury;

b) one or both of decreasing or preventing hepatocyte inflammation;

c) improving, e.g., increasing, glucose tolerance;

d) one or both of decreasing or preventing steatosis; or

e) one or both of decreasing or preventing hepatocyte ballooning,

provided that at least one amino acid entity is not a peptide of more than 20 amino acid residues in length.

In some embodiments, the composition includes at least four different amino acid entities (e.g., four, five, six, or more different amino acid entities) that decreases or prevents one or both of liver fibrosis or liver injury. For instance, the reducing and/or inhibiting liver fibrosis and/or liver injury comprises can include reducing a level of one or both of collagen, e.g., type I and III collagen or α-smooth muscle actin (αSMA).

In some embodiments, the composition includes at least four different amino acid entities (e.g., four, five, six, or more different amino acid entities) that decreases or prevents hepatocyte inflammation. In some embodiments, the reducing and/or inhibiting liver fibrosis and/or liver injury includes reducing a level or activity of one, two, three, four, or more (e.g., all) of a matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) (e.g., MMP-13, MMP-2, MMP-9, MT1-MMP, MMP-3, or MMP-10), a tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase (TIMP) (e.g., TIMP1), aspartate transaminase (AST), alanine transaminase (ALT), or N-terminal fragment of type III collagen (proC3).

In some embodiments, the decreasing or preventing hepatocyte inflammation comprises reducing a level or activity of one, two, three, four, five, six, seven or more (e.g., all) of NF-kB, interferons, IL-1b, IL-2, MCP-1, MIP-1, a caspase-cleaved keratin 18 fragments (e.g., one or both of M30 or M65), or C-reactive protein. In an embodiment, the decreasing or preventing hepatocyte inflammation comprises increasing a level or activity of IL-10.

In an embodiment, the improving, e.g., increasing, glucose tolerance, comprises increasing a level or activity of adiponectin. In an embodiment, the improving, e.g., increasing, glucose tolerance, comprises decreasing a level or activity of FGF-21.

In certain embodiments, the hepatocyte inflammation comprises LPS induced hepatocyte inflammation.

In some embodiments, the composition is capable of enhancing fatty acid oxidation, e.g., one or both of reducing levels of unsaturated fatty acids or increasing levels of acylcarnitine (e.g., in a STAM mouse model or a FATZO mouse model). In certain embodiments, the reduction in levels of unsaturated fatty acids is at least 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or 99% of the level of change shown in Table 53, e.g., measured as described in Example 9. In certain embodiments, the increase in levels of acylcarnitine is at least 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or 99% of the level of change shown in Table 53, e.g., measured as described in Example 9.

In certain embodiments, the composition is capable of reducing, or reduces, liver fibrosis or liver injury by at least 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 21%, 22%, 23%, 24%, 25%, 26%, 27%, 28%, 29%, or 30%, as detected using an assay of alanine transaminase (ALT), e.g., an antibody-based detection assay, e.g., an ELISA, e.g., as described in Example 4, e.g., relative to a reference composition (e.g., a vehicle control).

In certain embodiments, the composition is capable of reducing, or reduces, liver fibrosis or liver injury by at least 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 21%, 22%, 23%, 24%, 25%, 26%, 27%, 28%, 29%, or 30%, as detected using an assay of aspartate transaminase (AST), e.g., an antibody-based detection assay, e.g., an ELISA, e.g., as described in Example 4, e.g., relative to a reference composition (e.g., a vehicle control).

In certain embodiments, the composition is capable of reducing, or reduces, alanine transaminase (ALT) by at least 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 21%, 22%, 23%, 24%, 25%, 26%, 27%, 28%, 29%, or 30%, as detected using an assay of ALT, e.g., an antibody-based detection assay, e.g., an ELISA, e.g., as described in Example 4, e.g., relative to a reference composition (e.g., a vehicle control).

In certain embodiments, the composition is capable of reducing, or reduces, aspartate transaminase (AST) by at least 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 21%, 22%, 23%, 24%, 25%, 26%, 27%, 28%, 29%, or 30%, as detected using an assay of AST, e.g., an antibody-based detection assay, e.g., an ELISA, e.g., as described in Example 4, e.g., relative to a reference composition (e.g., a vehicle control).

In certain embodiments, the composition is capable of reducing, or reduces, liver fibrosis or liver injury by at least 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 21%, 22%, 23%, 24%, 25%, 26%, 27%, 28%, 29%, or 30%, as detected using an assay of hydroxyproline, e.g., an antibody-based detection assay, e.g., an ELISA, e.g., as described in Example 4, e.g., relative to a reference composition (e.g., a vehicle control).

In certain embodiments, the composition is capable of reducing, or reduces, hydroxyproline levels by at least 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 21%, 22%, 23%, 24%, 25%, 26%, 27%, 28%, 29%, or 30%, as detected using an assay of hydroxyproline, e.g., an antibody-based detection assay, e.g., an ELISA, e.g., as described in Example 4, e.g., relative to a reference composition (e.g., a vehicle control).

In certain embodiments, the composition is capable of reducing, or reduces, liver fibrosis or liver injury by at least 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, or 90% as detected using LX-2 cells, e.g., levels of Col1a1, Acta2, and/or TIMP2 in LX-2 cells, e.g., as assessed using a nucleic acid amplification method, e.g., PCR or qRT-PCR, e.g., as described in Example 7, e.g., relative to a reference composition (e.g., a vehicle control; an amino acid composition comprising L-leucine, L-isoleucine, L-valine; NAC; or an amino acid composition comprising L-arginine, L-glutamine, and NAC).

In certain embodiments, the composition is capable of reducing, or reduces, expression of one or more collagen biomarkers (e.g., Col1a1, Acta2, and/or TIMP2) by at least 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, or 90% as detected using LX-2 cells, e.g., levels of Col1a1, Acta2, and/or TIMP2 in LX-2 cells, e.g., as assessed using a nucleic acid amplification method, e.g., PCR or qRT-PCR, e.g., as described in Example 7, e.g., relative to a reference composition (e.g., a vehicle control; an amino acid composition comprising L-leucine, L-isoleucine, L-valine; an amino acid composition comprising L-arginine, L-glutamine, and NAC; or NAC).

In certain embodiments, the composition is capable of reducing, or reduces, expression of one or more collagen biomarkers (e.g., Col1a1) by at least 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, or 90% as detected using primary hepatic stellate cells, e.g., levels of Col1a1 in primary hepatic stellate cells, e.g., as assessed using an antibody-based detection assay, e.g., an ELISA, e.g., as described in Example 12, e.g., relative to a reference composition (e.g., a vehicle control; an amino acid composition comprising L-leucine, L-isoleucine, L-valine; an amino acid composition comprising L-arginine, L-glutamine, and NAC; an amino acid composition comprising L-leucine, L-isoleucine, L-valine, L-arginine, and L-glutamine; valine; glutamine; arginine; isoleucine; leucine; or NAC).

In certain embodiments, the composition is capable of increasing, or increases, expression of one or more collagen biomarkers (e.g., procollagen 1α1) by at least 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, or 90% as detected using primary hepatic stellate cells, e.g., levels of procollagen 1α1 in primary hepatic stellate cells, e.g., as assessed using an antibody-based detection assay, e.g., an ELISA, e.g., as described in Example 12, e.g., relative to a reference composition (e.g., a vehicle control; an amino acid composition comprising L-leucine, L-isoleucine, L-valine; an amino acid composition comprising L-arginine, L-glutamine, and NAC; an amino acid composition comprising L-leucine, L-isoleucine, L-valine, L-arginine, and L-glutamine; valine; glutamine; arginine; isoleucine; leucine; or NAC).

In certain embodiments, the composition is capable of reducing, or reduces, hepatocyte inflammation by at least 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, or 90% as detected using HepG2 cells, e.g., decreased activity, e.g., decreased TNFα-induced activity of NF-kB in a reporter assay in HepG2 cells, as described in Example 8, e.g., relative to a reference composition (e.g., a vehicle control; an amino acid composition comprising L-leucine, L-isoleucine, L-valine; an amino acid composition comprising L-arginine, L-glutamine, and NAC; an amino acid composition comprising L-leucine, L-isoleucine, L-valine, L-arginine, and L-glutamine; or NAC).

In certain embodiments, the composition is capable of reducing, or reduces, TNFα-induced activity of NF-kB in HepG2 cells by at least 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, or 90% as detected using HepG2 cells, e.g., decreased activity, e.g., decreased TNFα-induced activity of NF-kB in a reporter assay in HepG2 cells, as described in Example 8, e.g., relative to a reference composition (e.g., a vehicle control; an amino acid composition comprising L-leucine, L-isoleucine, L-valine; an amino acid composition comprising L-arginine, L-glutamine, and NAC; an amino acid composition comprising L-leucine, L-isoleucine, L-valine, L-arginine, and L-glutamine; or NAC).

In certain embodiments, the composition is capable of increasing, or increases, glucose tolerance, e.g., in a STAM mouse model or in a FATZO mouse model, by at least 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, or 10%, as detected using an assay of glucose levels, e.g., using glucose oxidase, e.g., using a glucometer, e.g., as described in Example 5, e.g., relative to a reference composition (e.g., a vehicle control or a positive control, e.g., metformin).

In certain embodiments, the composition is capable of increasing, or increases, blood glucose metabolism, e.g., in a STAM mouse model or in a FATZO mouse model, by at least 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, or 10%, as detected using an assay of glucose levels, e.g., using glucose oxidase, e.g., using a glucometer, e.g., as described in Example 5, e.g., relative to a reference composition (e.g., a vehicle control or a positive control, e.g., metformin).

In certain embodiments, the composition is capable of decreasing, or decreases, steatosis and/or inflammation by at least 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, or 10%, as detected using an assay of MCP1/CCL2, e.g., in primary hepatocytes, e.g., using an antibody-based detection assay, e.g., an ELISA, e.g., as described in Example 10, e.g., relative to a reference composition (e.g., a vehicle control; an amino acid composition comprising L-leucine, L-isoleucine, L-valine; an amino acid composition comprising L-arginine, L-glutamine, and NAC; an amino acid composition comprising L-leucine, L-isoleucine, L-valine, L-arginine, and L-glutamine; valine; glutamine; arginine; isoleucine; leucine; or NAC).

In certain embodiments, the composition is capable of decreasing, or decreases, MCP1/CCL2 levels by at least 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, or 10%, as detected using an assay of MCP1/CCL2, e.g., in primary hepatocytes, e.g., using an antibody-based detection assay, e.g., an ELISA, e.g., as described in Example 10, e.g., relative to a reference composition (e.g., a vehicle control; an amino acid composition comprising L-leucine, L-isoleucine, L-valine; an amino acid composition comprising L-arginine, L-glutamine, and NAC; an amino acid composition comprising L-leucine, L-isoleucine, L-valine, L-arginine, and L-glutamine; valine; glutamine; arginine; isoleucine; leucine; or NAC). In certain embodiments, the composition is capable of decreasing, or decreases, TNFα inflammatory response by at least 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, or 10%, as detected using an assay of MCP1/CCL2 or an assay of IL-6, e.g., in primary hepatic stellate cells, e.g., using an antibody-based detection assay, e.g., an ELISA, e.g., as described in Example 11, e.g., relative to a reference composition (e.g., a vehicle control; an amino acid composition comprising L-leucine, L-isoleucine, L-valine; an amino acid composition comprising L-arginine, L-glutamine, and NAC; an amino acid composition comprising L-leucine, L-isoleucine, L-valine, L-arginine, and L-glutamine; valine; glutamine; arginine; isoleucine; leucine; or NAC).

In certain embodiments, the composition is capable of decreasing, or decreases, MCP1/CCL2 levels and/or IL-6 levels by at least 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, or 10%, as detected using an assay of MCP1/CCL2 or an assay of IL-6, e.g., in primary hepatic stellate cells, e.g., using an antibody-based detection assay, e.g., an ELISA, e.g., as described in Example 11, e.g., relative to a reference composition (e.g., a vehicle control; an amino acid composition comprising L-leucine, L-isoleucine, L-valine; an amino acid composition comprising L-arginine, L-glutamine, and NAC; an amino acid composition comprising L-leucine, L-isoleucine, L-valine, L-arginine, and L-glutamine; valine; glutamine; arginine; isoleucine; leucine; or NAC).

In any of the foregoing embodiments, the reference composition comprises a single amino acid entity, e.g., a L-amino acid entity, an I-amino acid entity, a V-amino acid entity, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, or a NAC-amino acid entity, each assayed separately as a free amino acid, or a combination of amino acid entities (e.g., a L-amino acid entity, an I-amino acid entity, and a V-amino acid entity; a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and a NAC-amino acid entity; a L-amino acid entity, an I-amino acid entity, V-amino acid entity, a R-amino acid entity, and a Q-amino acid entity). In certain embodiments, the reference composition comprises vehicle (e.g., PBS or saline).

In some embodiments, the composition that decreases and/or prevents liver fibrosis and/or liver injury comprises one or more branched-chain amino acid (BCAAs), one or more conditionally essential amino acid (CEAAs), and an antioxidant or reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenger.

In some embodiments, the composition that decreases and/or prevents hepatocyte inflammation comprises one or more BCAAs, one or more CEAAs, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger.

In some embodiments, the composition that increases glucose tolerance comprises one or more BCAAs, one or more CEAAs, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger.

In some embodiments, the composition that decreases and/or prevents steatosis comprises one or more BCAAs, one or more CEAAs, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger.

In some embodiments, the composition that decreases and/or prevents hepatocyte ballooning comprises one or more BCAAs, one or more CEAAs, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger.

In an embodiment, the BCAA comprises a L-amino acid entity. In an embodiment, the BCAAs comprise a L-amino acid entity and an I-amino acid entity. In an embodiment, the BCAAs comprise a L-amino acid entity and a V-amino acid entity. In an embodiment, the BCAAs comprise a L-amino acid entity, a V-amino acid entity, and an I-amino acid entity. In an embodiment, the CEAA comprises a R-amino acid entity. In an embodiment, the CEAA comprises a Q-amino acid entity. In an embodiment, the CEAA comprises a R-amino acid entity and a Q-amino acid entity. In an embodiment, the antioxidant or ROS scavenger comprises a NAC entity, e.g., NAC.

In some embodiments, the composition comprises a) a L-amino acid entity, an R-amino acid entity, and a Q-amino acid entity; and b) an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity, e.g., NAC.

In some embodiments, the composition further comprises an I-amino acid-entity or a V-amino acid-entity. In other embodiments, the composition further comprises an I-amino acid-entity and a V-amino acid-entity.

Production of the Amino Acid Compositions

Amino acids used to make the compositions may be agglomerated, and/or instantized to aid in dispersal and/or solubilization.

The amino acid compositions of the present disclosure may be made using amino acids and amino acid derivatives from the following sources, or other sources may used: FUSI-BCAA™ Instantized Blend (L-Leucine, L-Isoleucine and L-Valine in 2:1:1 weight ratio), FUSIL™ Instantized L-Leucine, L-Arginine HCl, and L-Glutamine may be obtained from Ajinomoto Co., Inc; N-acetyl-cysteine may be obtained from Spectrum Chemical.

To produce the amino acid compositions of the instant disclosure, the following general steps may be used: the starting materials (individual amino acids and excipients) may be blended in a blending unit, followed by verification of blend uniformity and amino acid content, and filling of the blended powder into stick packs or other unit dosage form. The content of stick packs or other unit dosage forms may be dispersed in water at time of use for oral administration.

Formulations

The pharmaceutical compositions of the present disclosure may be in a form suitable for oral use (for example as tablets, lozenges, hard or soft capsules, aqueous or oily suspensions, emulsions, dispersible powders or granules, syrups or elixirs, medical food products, nutraceuticals), for topical use (for example as creams, ointments, gels, or aqueous or oily solutions or suspensions), for administration by inhalation (for example as finely divided powder) or for parental administration (for example as a sterile aqueous or oily solution for intravenous, subcutaneous, intramuscular dosing or as a suppository for rectal dosing).

Excipients

The amino acid compositions of the present disclosure may be compounded or formulated with one or more excipients. Non-limiting examples of suitable excipients include a tastant, a flavorant, a buffering agent, a preservative, a stabilizer, a binder, a compaction agent, a lubricant, a dispersion enhancer, a disintegration agent, a flavoring agent, a sweetener, and a coloring agent.

In some embodiments, the excipient comprises a buffering agent. Non-limiting examples of suitable buffering agents include citric acid, sodium citrate, magnesium carbonate, magnesium bicarbonate, calcium carbonate, and calcium bicarbonate.

In some embodiments, the excipient comprises a preservative. Non-limiting examples of suitable preservatives include antioxidants, such as alpha-tocopherol and ascorbate, and antimicrobials, such as parabens, chlorobutanol, and phenol.

In some embodiments, the composition comprises a binder as an excipient. Non-limiting examples of suitable binders include starches, pregelatinized starches, gelatin, polyvinylpyrolidone, cellulose, methylcellulose, sodium carboxymethylcellulose, ethylcellulose, polyacrylamides, polyvinyloxoazolidone, polyvinylalcohols, C12-C18 fatty acid alcohol, polyethylene glycol, polyols, saccharides, oligosaccharides, and combinations thereof.

In some embodiments, the composition comprises a lubricant as an excipient. Non-limiting examples of suitable lubricants include magnesium stearate, calcium stearate, zinc stearate, hydrogenated vegetable oils, sterotex, polyoxyethylene monostearate, talc, polyethyleneglycol, sodium benzoate, sodium lauryl sulfate, magnesium lauryl sulfate, and light mineral oil.

In some embodiments, the composition comprises a dispersion enhancer as an excipient. Non-limiting examples of suitable dispersants include starch, alginic acid, polyvinylpyrrolidones, guar gum, kaolin, xanthan gum, bentonite, purified wood cellulose, sodium starch glycolate, isoamorphous silicate, and microcrystalline cellulose as high HLB emulsifier surfactants.

In some embodiments, the composition comprises a disintegrant as an excipient. In some embodiments, the disintegrant is a non-effervescent disintegrant. Non-limiting examples of suitable non-effervescent disintegrants include starches such as corn starch, potato starch, pregelatinized and modified starches thereof, sweeteners, clays, such as bentonite, micro-crystalline cellulose, alginates, sodium starch glycolate, gums such as agar, guar, locust bean, karaya, pecitin, and tragacanth. In some embodiments, the disintegrant is an effervescent disintegrant. Non-limiting examples of suitable effervescent disintegrants include sodium bicarbonate in combination with citric acid, and sodium bicarbonate in combination with tartaric acid.

In some embodiments, the excipient comprises a flavoring agent. Flavoring agents can be chosen from synthetic flavor oils and flavoring aromatics; natural oils; extracts from plants, leaves, flowers, and fruits; and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the flavoring agent is selected from cinnamon oils; oil of wintergreen; peppermint oils; clover oil; hay oil; anise oil; eucalyptus; vanilla; citrus oil such as lemon oil, orange oil, grape and grapefruit oil; and fruit essences including apple, peach, pear, strawberry, raspberry, cherry, plum, pineapple, and apricot.

In some embodiments, the excipient comprises a sweetener. Non-limiting examples of suitable sweeteners include glucose (corn syrup), dextrose, invert sugar, fructose, and mixtures thereof (when not used as a carrier); saccharin and its various salts such as the sodium salt; dipeptide sweeteners such as aspartame; dihydrochalcone compounds, glycyrrhizin; Stevia Rebaudiana (Stevioside); chloro derivatives of sucrose such as sucralose; and sugar alcohols such as sorbitol, mannitol, sylitol, and the like. Also contemplated are hydrogenated starch hydrolysates and the synthetic sweetener 3,6-dihydro-6-methyl-1,2,3-oxathiazin-4-one-2,2-dioxide, particularly the potassium salt (acesulfame-K), and sodium and calcium salts thereof.

In some embodiments, the composition comprises a coloring agent. Non-limiting examples of suitable color agents include food, drug and cosmetic colors (FD&C), drug and cosmetic colors (D&C), and external drug and cosmetic colors (Ext. D&C). The coloring agents can be used as dyes or their corresponding lakes.

Particular excipients may include one or more of: citric acid, lecithin, (e.g. Alcolec F100), sweeteners (e.g. sucralose, sucralose micronized NF, acesulfame potassium (e.g. Ace-K)), a dispersion enhancer (e.g. xanthan gum (e.g. Ticaxan Rapid-3)), flavorings (e.g. vanilla custard #4306, Nat Orange WONF #1326, lime 865.0032U, and lemon 862.2169U), a bitterness masking agent (e.g. 936.2160U), and natural or artificial colorings (e.g. FD&C Yellow 6).

Methods of Treatment

The composition as described herein can be administered to improve liver function, e.g., in a patient with a liver disease. The composition as described herein can also be administered to treat (e.g., reverse, reduce, ameliorate, or prevent) a disorder, e.g., a liver disease in a subject. The present disclosure provides methods of treating a liver disease selected from fatty liver disease (steatohepatitis), alcoholic steatohepatitis (ASH), non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), non-alcoholic fatty liver (NAFL), non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), liver fibrosis, and cirrhosis. In particular, an effective amount of the composition can be administered (e.g., according to a dosage regimen described herein) to treat a subject with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), non-alcoholic fatty liver (NAFL), non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), or cirrhosis.

Patients with Liver Disease

In some embodiments, a subject has fatty liver disease selected from NAFLD and AFLD. In some embodiments, the subject has pediatric NAFLD. In some embodiments, the subject with NAFLD has NASH or NAFL. In some embodiments, the subject with AFLD has ASH.

In certain embodiments, the subject exhibits symptoms of gut leakiness. In certain embodiments, the subject has gut dysbiosis. In certain embodiments, the subject has gut microbiome disturbance. The subject may have increased levels of inflammatory cytokines, e.g., increased TNFα, relative to a normal subject without a fatty liver disease.

In certain embodiments, the subject exhibits muscle atrophy, e.g., has a decreased ratio of muscle tissue to adipose tissue, e.g., relative to a normal subject without a fatty liver disease. For example, the subject exhibits muscle atrophy without fibrosis and/or cirrhosis.

In certain embodiments, the subject exhibits reverse lipid transport from adipose tissue to liver tissue.

In some embodiments, the subject has fibrosis. The subject may have cirrhosis. The subject may also have a metabolic syndrome.

In certain embodiments, the subject has one, two, or more (e.g., all) of hepatocarcinoma, an increased risk of liver failure, or an increased risk of death.

In some embodiments, the subject has type 2 diabetes.

In some embodiments, the subject with a liver disease (e.g., NAFLD (e.g., NASH or NAFL) or AFLD (e.g., ASH)) is a mammal (e.g., a human). In some embodiments, the subject has been diagnosed with NAFLD, NASH or cirrhosis. In some embodiments, the subject has not received prior treatment with a composition as described herein (e.g., the subject is a naïve subject). In some embodiments, the subject with NAFLD, NASH or cirrhosis has diabetes (e.g., type 2 diabetes).

In some embodiments, the subject has NAFLD. In some embodiments, the subject has NAFL. In certain embodiments, the subject (e.g., a child or an adolescent) has pediatric NAFLD. In some embodiments, the subject has hepatic steatosis. In some embodiments, a subject with pediatric NAFLD has steatosis.

In some embodiments, the subject has non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). In some embodiments, the subject with NASH has fibrosis.

In some embodiments, the subject has cirrhosis. In some embodiments, the subject with cirrhosis has fibrosis. In some embodiments, the subject with cirrhosis has hepatocarcinoma. In some embodiments, the subject with cirrhosis has an increased risk of liver failure. In some embodiments, the subject with cirrhosis has hepatocarcinoma, an increased risk of liver failure, and an increased risk of death.

In some embodiments, a subject exhibits a symptom of liver disease (e.g. NAFLD, NASH, or cirrhosis), e.g., a metabolic symptom, prior to administration of the composition. In some embodiments, a subject exhibits a metabolic symptom of liver disease (e.g. NAFLD, NASH, or cirrhosis) selected from one, two, three, four, five, six, or more (e.g., all) of decreased fat metabolism, hepatocyte apoptosis, hepatocyte ballooning, inflammation of adipose tissue, inflammation of hepatic tissue, hepatocyte ballooning, oxidative stress (e.g., reactive oxygen species (ROS), decreased gut barrier function, decreased insulin secretion, or decreased glucose tolerance (e.g., relative to a healthy subject without a liver disease).

In some embodiments, a subject exhibits modulated (e.g., increased) levels of a biomarker prior to administration of the composition. In some embodiments, a subject exhibits modulated levels of a biomarker selected from one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, or more (e.g., all) of ACOX1; IL-10; NF-kB, an interferon, IL-2; glutathione (GSH); alanine aminotransferase (ALT); aspartate aminotransferase (AST); adiponectin; N-terminal fragment of type III collagen (proC3); caspase-cleaved keratin 18 fragments (M30 and M65); IL-1β; C-reactive protein; PIIINP; TIMP1; MCP-1; or FGF-21 (e.g., relative to a healthy subject without a liver disease).

In some embodiments, the subject exhibits increased levels of ALT, e.g., relative to a healthy subject without a liver disease.

In some embodiments, the subject exhibits increased levels of AST, e.g., relative to a healthy subject without a liver disease.

Improvement in Symptoms of Liver Disease

The composition as described herein can be administered to treat (e.g., reverse, reduce, ameliorate, or prevent) a subject (e.g., a human) with a liver disease, thereby improving a symptom of a liver disease in the patient. In some embodiments, the composition is administered to a subject with NAFLD. In some embodiments, the composition is administered to a subject with NAFL. In some embodiments, the composition is administered to a subject with NASH. In some embodiments, the composition is administered to a subject with cirrhosis of the liver.

In some embodiments, administration of a composition (e.g., at a dosage regimen described herein) results in an improvement in one or more symptoms of NAFLD, e.g., a metabolic symptom of NAFLD, in a subject.

In some embodiments, administration of the composition results in increased free fatty acid and lipid metabolism in a subject with NAFLD (e.g., a subject with pediatric NAFLD). In some embodiments, administration of the composition results in improved mitochondrial function in a subject with NAFLD (e.g., a subject with pediatric NAFLD). In some embodiments, administration of the composition results in white adipose tissue (WAT) browning in a subject with NAFLD (e.g., a subject with pediatric NAFLD).

In some embodiments, administration of the composition results in decreased reactive oxygen species (ROS) in a subject with NAFLD (e.g., a subject with pediatric NAFLD). In some embodiments, administration of the composition results in increased levels of glutathione (GSH) in a subject with NAFLD (e.g., a subject with pediatric NAFLD).

In some embodiments, administration of the composition results in decreased hepatic inflammation in a subject with NAFLD (e.g., a subject with pediatric NAFLD). In some embodiments, administration of the composition results in decreased hepatocyte ballooning in a subject with NAFLD (e.g., a subject with pediatric NAFLD).

In some embodiments, administration of the composition results in improved gut barrier function in a subject with NAFLD (e.g., a subject with pediatric NAFLD).

In some embodiments, administration of the composition results in increased insulin secretion in a subject with NAFLD (e.g., a subject with pediatric NAFLD). In some embodiments, administration of the composition results in improved glucose tolerance in a subject with NAFLD (e.g., a subject with pediatric NAFLD).

In some embodiments, the composition reduces or inhibits liver fibrosis in a subject with NAFLD (e.g., a subject with pediatric NAFLD). In some embodiments, the composition reduces or inhibits liver fibrosis in a subject with NAFLD (e.g., a subject with pediatric NAFLD).

In some embodiments, the composition reduces liver fat in a subject with NAFLD (e.g., a subject with pediatric NAFLD). In some embodiments, the composition reduces liver enzyme levels (e.g., ALT or AST) in blood or plasma from a subject with NAFLD (e.g., a subject with pediatric NAFLD).

In some embodiments, administration of a composition (e.g., at a dosage regimen described herein) including amino acid entities results in an improvement in one or more symptoms of NASH, e.g., a metabolic symptom of NASH, in a subject.

In some embodiments, administration of the composition results in increased free fatty acid and lipid metabolism in a subject with NASH (e.g., a subject with NAFLD, fibrosis, and type 2 diabetes). In some embodiments, administration of the composition results in improved mitochondrial function in a subject with NASH. In some embodiments, administration of the composition results in white adipose tissue (WAT) browning in a subject with NASH (e.g., a subject with NAFLD, fibrosis, and type 2 diabetes).

In some embodiments, administration of the composition results in decreased reactive oxygen species (ROS) in a subject with NASH (e.g., a subject with NAFLD, fibrosis, and type 2 diabetes). In some embodiments, administration of the composition results in increased levels of glutathione (GSH) in a subject with NASH (e.g., a subject with NAFLD, fibrosis, and type 2 diabetes).

In some embodiments, administration of the composition results in decreased hepatic inflammation in a subject with NASH (e.g., a subject with NAFLD, fibrosis, and type 2 diabetes). In some embodiments, administration of the composition results in decreased hepatocyte ballooning in a subject with NASH (e.g., a subject with NAFLD, fibrosis, and type 2 diabetes).

In some embodiments, administration of the composition results in improved gut barrier function in a subject with NASH (e.g., a subject with NAFLD, fibrosis, and type 2 diabetes).

In some embodiments, administration of the composition results in increased insulin secretion in a subject with NASH (e.g., a subject with NAFLD, fibrosis, and type 2 diabetes). In some embodiments, administration of the composition results in improved glucose tolerance in a subject with NASH (e.g., a subject with NAFLD, fibrosis, and type 2 diabetes).

In some embodiments, the composition reduces or inhibits liver fibrosis in a subject with NASH (e.g., a subject with NAFLD, fibrosis, and type 2 diabetes). In some embodiments, the composition reduces or inhibits liver fibrosis in a subject with NASH (e.g., a subject with NAFLD, fibrosis, and type 2 diabetes).

In some embodiments, the composition reduces liver fat in a subject with NASH (e.g., a subject with NAFLD, fibrosis, and type 2 diabetes). In some embodiments, the composition reduces liver enzyme levels (e.g., ALT or AST) in blood or plasma from a subject with NASH (e.g., a subject with NAFLD, fibrosis, and type 2 diabetes).

In some embodiments, administration of a composition (e.g., at a dosage regimen described herein) including amino acid entities results in an improvement in one or more symptoms of cirrhosis, e.g., a metabolic symptom of cirrhosis, in a subject.

In some embodiments, administration of the composition results in decreased reactive oxygen species (ROS) in a subject with cirrhosis (e.g., a subject with hepatocarcinoma, increased risk of liver failure, and increased risk of death). In some embodiments, administration of the composition results in increased levels of glutathione (GSH) in a subject with cirrhosis (e.g., a subject with hepatocarcinoma, increased risk of liver failure, and increased risk of death).

In some embodiments, administration of the composition results in decreased hepatic inflammation in a subject with cirrhosis (e.g., a subject with hepatocarcinoma, increased risk of liver failure, and increased risk of death). In some embodiments, administration of the composition results in decreased hepatocyte ballooning in a subject with cirrhosis (e.g., a subject with hepatocarcinoma, increased risk of liver failure, and increased risk of death).

In some embodiments, administration of the composition results in improved gut barrier function in a subject with cirrhosis (e.g., a subject with hepatocarcinoma, increased risk of liver failure, and increased risk of death).

In some embodiments, administration of the composition results in increased insulin secretion in a subject with cirrhosis (e.g., a subject with hepatocarcinoma, increased risk of liver failure, and increased risk of death). In some embodiments, administration of the composition results in improved glucose tolerance in a subject with cirrhosis (e.g., a subject with hepatocarcinoma, increased risk of liver failure, and increased risk of death).

In some embodiments, the composition reduces or inhibits liver fibrosis in a subject with cirrhosis (e.g., a subject with hepatocarcinoma, increased risk of liver failure, and increased risk of death). In some embodiments, the composition reduces or inhibits liver fibrosis in a subject with cirrhosis (e.g., a subject with hepatocarcinoma, increased risk of liver failure, and increased risk of death).

In some embodiments, the composition reduces liver fat in a subject with cirrhosis (e.g., a subject with hepatocarcinoma, increased risk of liver failure, and increased risk of death). In some embodiments, the composition reduces liver enzyme levels (e.g., ALT or AST) in blood or plasma from a subject with cirrhosis (e.g., a subject with hepatocarcinoma, increased risk of liver failure, and increased risk of death).

Dosage Regimens

The composition can be administered according to a dosage regimen described herein to treat (e.g., inhibit, reduce, ameliorate, or prevent) a disorder, e.g., a liver disease in a subject (e.g., a human). In some embodiments, the subject has NAFLD. In some embodiments, the subject has NAFL. In some embodiments, the subject has NASH. In some embodiments, the subject has cirrhosis.

The composition can be provided to a patient with a liver disease (e.g., NAFL, NASH, or cirrhosis) in either a single or multiple dosage regimens. In some embodiments, doses are administered, e.g., twice daily, three times daily, four times daily, five times daily, six times daily, seven times daily, or more. In some embodiments, the composition is administered for at least 2 days, 3 days, 4 days, 5 days, 6 days, 7 days, or 2 weeks. In some embodiments, the composition is administered for at least 10 weeks, 11 weeks, 12 weeks, 13 weeks, 14 weeks, 15 weeks, 16 weeks, 17 weeks, 18 weeks, 19 weeks, 20 weeks, or longer. In some embodiments, the composition is administered chronically, e.g., more than 30 days, e.g., 31 days, 40 days, 50 days, 60 days, 3 months, 6 months, 9 months, one year, two years, or three years).

In some embodiments, the composition is administered at a dose of about 2 g to about 60 g total amino acids, e.g., once per day, twice per day, three times per day, four times per day, five times per day, or six times per day (e.g., three times per day). In some embodiments, the composition is administered at a dose of about 5 g to about 15 g, about 10 g to about 20 g, about 20 g to about 40 g, or about 30 g to about 50 g total amino acids, e.g., once per day, twice per day, three times per day, four times per day, five times per day, or six times per day (e.g., three times per day).

In some embodiments, the composition is administered at a dose of about 5 g to about 10 g total amino acids, e.g., once per day, twice per day, three times per day, four times per day, five times per day, or six times per day (e.g., three times per day). In some embodiments, the composition is administered at a dose of about 6 g total amino acids, e.g., once per day, twice per day, three times per day, four times per day, five times per day, or six times per day (e.g., three times per day). In an embodiment, the composition is administered at a dose of about 6 g total amino acids three times per day.

In some embodiments, the composition is administered at a dose of about 10 g to about 20 g total amino acids, e.g., once per day, twice per day, three times per day, four times per day, five times per day, or six times per day (e.g., three times per day). In some embodiments, the composition is administered at a dose of about 12 g total amino acids, e.g., once per day, twice per day, three times per day, four times per day, five times per day, or six times per day (e.g., three times per day). In an embodiment, the composition is administered at a dose of about 12 g total amino acids three times per day.

In some embodiments, the composition is administered at a dose of about 20 g to about 40 g total amino acids, e.g., once per day, twice per day, three times per day, four times per day, five times per day, or six times per day (e.g., three times per day). In some embodiments, the composition is administered at a dose of about 18 g total amino acids, e.g., once per day, twice per day, three times per day, four times per day, five times per day, or six times per day (e.g., three times per day). In an embodiment, the composition is administered at a dose of about 18 g total amino acids three times per day.

In some embodiments, the composition is administered at a dose of about 20 g to about 40 g total amino acids, e.g., once per day, twice per day, three times per day, four times per day, five times per day, or six times per day (e.g., three times per day). In some embodiments, the composition is administered at a dose of about 24 g total amino acids, e.g., once per day, twice per day, three times per day, four times per day, five times per day, or six times per day (e.g., three times per day). In an embodiment, the composition is administered at a dose of about 24 g total amino acids three times per day.

In some embodiments, the composition is administered at a dose of about 30 g to about 50 g total amino acids, e.g., once per day, twice per day, three times per day, four times per day, five times per day, or six times per day (e.g., three times per day). In some embodiments, the composition is administered at a dose of about 48 g total amino acids, e.g., once per day, twice per day, three times per day, four times per day, five times per day, or six times per day (e.g., three times per day). In an embodiment, the composition is administered at a dose of about 48 g total amino acids three times per day.

In some embodiments, the composition is administered at a dose of about 5 grams, about 8 grams, about 9 grams, about 10 grams, about 11 grams, about 12 grams, about 13 grams, about 14 grams, about 15 grams, about 16 grams, about 17 grams, about 18 grams, about 19 about grams, about 20 grams, about 21 grams, about 22 grams, about 24 grams, about 25 grams, about 26 grams, about 27 grams, about 28 grams, about 29 grams, or about 30 grams total amino acids (e.g., about 12 g or about 24 g), e.g., once per day, twice per day, three times per day, four times per day, five times per day, or six times per day (e.g., three times per day).

In some embodiments, the composition is administered every 2 hours, every 3 hours, every 4 hours, every 5 hours, every 6 hours, every 7 hours, every 8 hours, every 9 hours, or every 10 hours to a subject with a liver disease (e.g., NAFLD (e.g., NASH or NAFL) or AFLD (e.g., ASH)).

In an embodiment, the composition is administered to a subject with NAFLD prior to a meal. In an embodiment, the composition is administered to a subject with NAFLD concurrent with a meal. In an embodiment, the composition is administered to a subject with NAFLD following a meal.

In an embodiment, the composition is administered to a subject with NAFL prior to a meal. In an embodiment, the composition is administered to a subject with NAFL concurrent with a meal. In an embodiment, the composition is administered to a subject with NAFL following a meal.

In an embodiment, the composition is administered to a subject with NASH prior to a meal. In an embodiment, the composition is administered to a subject with NASH concurrent with a meal. In an embodiment, the composition is administered to a subject with NASH following a meal.

In an embodiment, the composition is administered to the subject with cirrhosis prior to a meal. In an embodiment, the composition is administered to a subject with cirrhosis concurrent with a meal. In an embodiment, the composition is administered to a subject with cirrhosis following a meal.

In an embodiment, the composition includes at least 1 g of leucine, at least 0.5 g of isoleucine, at least 0.5 g of valine, at least 1.5 g of arginine (or 1.81 g of arginine HCl), at least 2 g of glutamine, and at least 0.15 g of N-acetylcysteine for administration three times per day (e.g., for a total of at least 18 g per day).

In an embodiment, the composition includes about 1 g of leucine, about 0.5 g of isoleucine, about 0.5 g of valine, about 1.5 g of arginine (or 1.81 g of arginine HCl), about 2 g of glutamine, and about 0.15 g of N-acetylcysteine for administration three times per day (e.g., for a total of about 18 g per day).

In an embodiment, the composition includes at least 2 g of leucine, at least 1 g of isoleucine, at least 1 g of valine, at least 3.0 g of arginine (or 3.62 g of arginine HCl), at least 4 g of glutamine, and at least 0.3 g of N-acetylcysteine for administration three times per day (e.g., a total of at least 36 g per day).

In an embodiment, the composition includes about 2 g of leucine, about 1 g of isoleucine, about 1 g of valine, about 3.0 g or arginine (or 3.62 g of arginine HCl), about 4 g of glutamine, and about 0.3 g of N-acetylcysteine for administration three times per day (e.g., a total of about 36 g per day).

In an embodiment, the composition includes at least 4 g of leucine, at least 2 g of isoleucine, at least 2 g of valine, at least 6.0 g of arginine (or 7.24 g of arginine HCl), at least 8 g of glutamine, and at least 0.6 g of N-acetylcysteine for administration three times per day (e.g., a total of at least 72 g per day).

In an embodiment, the composition includes about 4 g of leucine, about 2 g of isoleucine, about 2 g of valine, about 6.0 g of arginine (or 7.24 g of arginine HCl), about 8 g of glutamine, and about 0.6 g of N-acetylcysteine for administration three times per day (e.g., a total of about 72 g per day).

In an embodiment, the composition includes at least 1 g of leucine, at least 0.5 g of isoleucine, at least 0.5 g of valine, at least 0.75 g of arginine (or 0.905 g of arginine HCl), at least 2 g of glutamine, and at least 0.15 g of N-acetylcysteine for administration three times per day (e.g., for a total of at least 18 g per day).

In an embodiment, the composition includes about 1 g of leucine, about 0.5 g of isoleucine, about 0.5 g of valine, about 0.75 g of arginine (or 0.905 g of arginine HCl), about 2 g of glutamine, and about 0.15 g of N-acetylcysteine for administration three times per day (e.g., for a total of about 18 g per day).

In an embodiment, the composition includes at least 2 g of leucine, at least 1 g of isoleucine, at least 1 g of valine, at least 1.5 g of arginine (or 1.81 g of arginine HCl), at least 4 g of glutamine, and at least 0.3 g of N-acetylcysteine for administration three times per day (e.g., a total of at least 36 g per day).

In an embodiment, the composition includes about 2 g of leucine, about 1 g of isoleucine, about 1 g of valine, about 1.5 g or arginine (or 1.81 g of arginine HCl), about 4 g of glutamine, and about 0.3 g of N-acetylcysteine for administration three times per day (e.g., a total of about 36 g per day).

In an embodiment, the composition includes at least 4 g of leucine, at least 2 g of isoleucine, at least 2 g of valine, at least 3.0 g of arginine (or 3.62 g of arginine HCl), at least 8 g of glutamine, and at least 0.6 g of N-acetylcysteine for administration three times per day (e.g., a total of at least 72 g per day).

In an embodiment, the composition includes about 4 g of leucine, about 2 g of isoleucine, about 2 g of valine, about 3.0 g of arginine (or 3.62 g of arginine HCl), about 8 g of glutamine, and about 0.6 g of N-acetylcysteine for administration three times per day (e.g., a total of about 72 g per day).

In an embodiment, the composition includes at least 1 g of leucine, at least 0.5 g of isoleucine, at least 0.25 g of valine, at least 0.75 g of arginine (or 0.905 g of arginine HCl), at least 1 g of glutamine, and at least 0.225 g of N-acetylcysteine for administration three times per day (e.g., for a total of at least 18 g per day).

In an embodiment, the composition includes about 1 g of leucine, about 0.5 g of isoleucine, about 0.25 g of valine, about 0.75 g of arginine (or 0.905 g of arginine HCl), about 1 g of glutamine, and about 0.225 g of N-acetylcysteine for administration three times per day (e.g., for a total of about 18 g per day).

In an embodiment, the composition includes at least 2 g of leucine, at least 1 g of isoleucine, at least 0.5 g of valine, at least 1.5 g of arginine (or 1.81 g of arginine HCl), at least 2 g of glutamine, and at least 0.45 g of N-acetylcysteine for administration three times per day (e.g., a total of at least 36 g per day).

In an embodiment, the composition includes about 2 g of leucine, about 1 g of isoleucine, about 0.5 g of valine, about 1.5 g or arginine (or 1.81 g of arginine HCl), about 2 g of glutamine, and about 0.45 g of N-acetylcysteine for administration three times per day (e.g., a total of about 36 g per day).

In an embodiment, the composition includes at least 4 g of leucine, at least 2 g of isoleucine, at least 1 g of valine, at least 3 g of arginine (or 3.62 g of arginine HCl), at least 4 g of glutamine, and at least 0.9 g of N-acetylcysteine for administration three times per day (e.g., a total of at least 72 g per day).

In an embodiment, the composition includes about 4 g of leucine, about 2 g of isoleucine, about 1 g of valine, about 3 g of arginine (or 3.62 g of arginine HCl), about 4 g of glutamine, and about 0.9 g of N-acetylcysteine for administration three times per day (e.g., a total of about 72 g per day).

In an embodiment, the composition includes at least 1 g of leucine, at least 0.5 g of isoleucine, at least 0.25 g of valine, at least 0.75 g of arginine (or 0.905 g of arginine HCl), at least 1 g of glutamine, at least 0.225 g of N-acetylcysteine, and at least 1.5 g or about 1.67 g of serine for administration three times per day (e.g., for a total of at least 18 g per day or for a total of at least 20 g per day).

In an embodiment, the composition includes about 1 g of leucine, about 0.5 g of isoleucine, about 0.25 g of valine, about 0.75 g of arginine (or 0.905 g of arginine HCl), about 1 g of glutamine, about 0.225 g of N-acetylcysteine, and about 1.5 g or about 1.67 g of serine for administration three times per day (e.g., for a total of about 18 g per day or for a total of at least 20 g per day).

In an embodiment, the composition includes at least 2 g of leucine, at least 1 g of isoleucine, at least 0.5 g of valine, at least 1.5 g of arginine (or 1.81 g of arginine HCl), at least 2 g of glutamine, at least 0.45 g of N-acetylcysteine, and at least 3 g or about 3.33 g of serine for administration three times per day (e.g., a total of at least 36 g per day or for a total of at least 40 g per day).

In an embodiment, the composition includes about 2 g of leucine, about 1 g of isoleucine, about 0.5 g of valine, about 1.5 g or arginine (or 1.81 g of arginine HCl), about 2 g of glutamine, about 0.45 g of N-acetylcysteine, and about 3 g or about 3.33 g of serine for administration three times per day (e.g., a total of about 36 g per day or for a total of at least 40 g per day).

In an embodiment, the composition includes at least 4 g of leucine, at least 2 g of isoleucine, at least 1 g of valine, at least 3 g of arginine (or 3.62 g of arginine HCl), at least 4 g of glutamine, at least 0.9 g of N-acetylcysteine, and at least 6 g or about 6.67 g of serine for administration three times per day (e.g., a total of at least 90 g per day).

In an embodiment, the composition includes about 4 g of leucine, about 2 g of isoleucine, about 1 g of valine, about 3 g of arginine (or 3.62 g of arginine HCl), about 4 g of glutamine, about 0.9 g of N-acetylcysteine, and about 6 g or about 6.67 g of serine for administration three times per day (e.g., a total of about 90 g per day). In some embodiments, the composition comprises four stick packs, each stick pack comprising 25% of the quantity of each amino acid included in the composition (e.g., as described herein).

Secondary Agents

In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a farnesoid X receptor (FXR) agonist, a stearoyl CoA desaturase inhibitor, a CCR2 and CCR5 chemokine antagonist, a PPAR alpha and delta agonist, a caspase inhibitor, a galectin-3 inhibitor, an acetyl CoA carboxylase inhibitor, or an ileal sodium bile acid co-transporter inhibitor prior to, concurrently with, or after administration of the amino acid composition.

In some embodiments, the method further includes administering an FXR agonist. In some embodiments, the FXR agonist is obeticholic acid. In some embodiments, the method further includes administering one or more of: LMB-763, LJN-452, emricasan, and cenicriviroc.

Dietary Compositions

The composition including amino acid entities can be dietary compositions, e.g., chosen from a medical food, a functional food, or a supplement.

The composition including amino acid entities can be for use as a dietary composition, e.g., chosen from a medical food, a functional food, or a supplement. In some embodiments, the dietary composition is for use in a method comprising adminstering the composition to a subject.

In some embodiments, the subject has one or both of type 2 diabetes or a relatively high BMI.

In some embodiments, the subject has fatty liver disease.

In some embodiments, the subject has NAFLD (e.g., pediatric NAFLD). In an embodiment, the subject has NASH. In an embodiment, the subject has NAFL.

In some embodiments, the subject has AFLD. In an embodiment, the subject has ASH.

In some embodiments, the subject has one, two, three, four, or more (e.g., all) of fibrosis, cirrhosis, hepatocarcinoma, an increased risk of liver failure, or an increased risk of death.

In some embodiments, the composition promotes weight loss in the subject.

In some embodiments, administration of the dietary composition results in an improvement in one or more metabolic symptoms in the subject, e.g., one or more metabolic symptoms is selected from the following: increased free fatty acid and lipid metabolism (e.g., in the liver), improved mitochondrial function, white adipose tissue (WAT) browning, decreased reactive oxygen species (ROS), increased levels of glutathione (GSH), decreased hepatic inflammation, decreased hepatocyte ballooning, improved gut barrier function, increased insulin secretion, or glucose tolerance. In certain embodiments, administration of the composition results in an improvement in one or more metabolic symptoms after a treatment period of 24 hours.

The method can further include determining the level of one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven, twelve, thirteen, fourteen, or more (e.g., all) of the following:

a) alanine aminotransferase (ALT);

b) aspartate aminotransferase (AST);

c) adiponectin;

d) N-terminal fragment of type III collagen (proC3);

e) caspase-cleaved keratin 18 fragments (M30 and M65);

f) IL-1 beta;

g) C-reactive protein;

h) PIIINP;

i) a tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase (TIMP); e.g., TIMP1 or TIMP2;

j) MCP-1;

k) FGF-21;

l) Col1a1;

m) Acta2;

n) a matrix metalloproteinase (MMP), e.g., MMP-13, MMP-2, MMP-9, MT1-MMP, MMP-3, or MMP-10;

o) ACOX1;

p) IL-10; or

q) NF-kB.

In certain embodiments, administration of the composition results in an improvement in one or more of a)-q) after a treatment period of 24 hours.

In some embodiments, the subject exhibits increased levels of one or both of ALT or AST prior to administration of the composition, e.g., relative to a healthy subject without a liver disease. In some embodiments, administration of the composition results in a decrease in levels of one or both of ALT or AST.

Methods of Providing an Amino Acid to a Subject

The present disclosure features a method of providing amino acid entities to a subject comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a composition described herein, e.g., a composition comprising a leucine (L)-amino acid entity, a arginine (R)-amino acid entity, a glutamine (Q)-amino acid entity; and an antioxidant or reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenger, e.g., a N-acetylcysteine (NAC) entity, e.g., NAC. In some embodiments, at least one amino acid entity is not a peptide of more than 20 amino acid residues in length.

The present disclosure also features a method of increasing one, two, three, or more (e.g., all) amino acid entities in a subject comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of the composition described herein. In some embodiments, administration of the composition results in an increase in the amino acid entities in one, two, or more (e.g., all) of blood, plasma, or serum of the subject, e.g., in a blood, plasma, or serum sample from the subject.

Biomarkers

Any of the methods disclosed herein can include evaluating or monitoring the effectiveness of administering a composition including amino acid entities to a subject with a liver disease (e.g., NAFLD (e.g., NASH or NAFL) or AFLD (e.g., ASH)).

In embodiments, the value of effectiveness to the composition in treating a subject with a liver disease (e.g., NAFLD (e.g., NASH or NAFL) or AFLD (e.g., ASH)) comprises a measure of one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven, twelve, thirteen, fourteen, fifteen, sixteen, or more (e.g., all) of the following:

a) alanine aminotransferase (ALT);

b) aspartate aminotransferase (AST);

c) adiponectin;

d) N-terminal fragment of type III collagen (proC3);

e) caspase-cleaved keratin 18 fragments (M30 and M65);

f) IL-1 beta;

g) C-reactive protein;

h) PIIINP;

i) a tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase (TIMP); e.g., TIMP1 or TIMP2;

j) MCP-1;

k) FGF-21;

l) Col1a1;

m) Acta2;

n) a matrix metalloproteinase (MMP), e.g., MMP-13, MMP-2, MMP-9, MT1-MMP, MMP-3, or MMP-10;

o) ACOX1;

p) IL-10; or

q) NF-kB.

In some embodiments of any of the methods disclosed herein, the measure of one or more of a)-q) is obtained from a sample acquired from the subject with a liver disease (e.g., NAFLD (e.g., NASH or NAFL) or AFLD (e.g., ASH)). In some embodiments, the sample is chosen from a blood sample (e.g., a plasma sample) or a liver sample.

In some embodiments, the subject is evaluated prior to receiving, during, or after receiving, a composition including amino acid entities.

In some embodiments, administration of the composition including amino acid entities (e.g., at a dose of about 2 g to about 60 g total amino acids, e.g., about 6 g, about 12 g, about 18 g, about 24 g, or about 48 g), results in an improvement in one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven, twelve, thirteen, fourteen, fifteen, sixteen, or more (e.g., all) of the following:

a) alanine aminotransferase (ALT);

b) aspartate aminotransferase (AST);

c) adiponectin;

d) N-terminal fragment of type III collagen (proC3);

e) caspase-cleaved keratin 18 fragments (M30 and M65);

f) IL-1 beta;

g) C-reactive protein;

h) PIIINP;

i) a tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase (TIMP); e.g., TIMP1 or TIMP2;

j) MCP-1;

k) FGF-21;

l) Col1a1;

m) Acta2;

n) a matrix metalloproteinase (MMP), e.g., MMP-13, MMP-2, MMP-9, MT1-MMP, MMP-3, or MMP-10;

o) ACOX1;

p) IL-10; or

q) NF-kB.

In some embodiments, administration of the composition including amino acid entities (e.g., at a dose of about 2 g to about 60 g total amino acids, e.g., about 6 g, about 12 g, about 18 g, about 24 g, or about 48 g three times daily), results in an improvement in one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, or more (e.g., all) of a)-k) after a treatment period of, about 24 hours, about 72 hours, about 1 week, about 2 weeks, about 3 weeks, about 4 weeks, about 5 weeks, about 6 weeks, about 7 weeks, about 8 weeks, about 9 weeks, about 10 weeks, about 11 weeks, or 12 weeks. In certain embodiments, administration of the composition results in an improvement in one, two, three, four, five, or more (e.g., all) of a)-k) after a treatment period of about 2 weeks.

Numbered Embodiments

The invention is further described with reference to the following numbered embodiments.

1. A composition comprising:

a) a leucine (L)-amino acid entity, an arginine (R)-amino acid entity, and a glutamine (Q)-amino acid entity; and

b) an antioxidant or reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenger, e.g., a N-acetylcysteine (NAC) entity, e.g., NAC;

provided that:

c) at least one amino acid entity is not provided as a peptide of more than 20 amino acid residues in length, and

optionally wherein:

(i) an amino acid entity (e.g., at least one, two, or three of the amino acid entities) of (a) is selected from Table 2; or

(ii) (A) one or both of the R-amino acid entity and the Q-amino acid entity are present at a higher amount (wt. %) than the L-amino acid entity, or (B) the composition further comprises a serine (S)-amino acid entity.

1A. The composition of embodiment 1, wherein the composition satisfies the property of (i).

1B. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the composition satisfies the property of (ii)(A).

1C. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the composition satisfies the property of (ii)(B).

1D. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the composition further comprises an S-amino acid entity, and wherein the S-amino acid entity is present at a higher amount than any other amino acid entity.

2. The composition of any of embodiments 1-1D, wherein the composition comprises an amino acid and three amino acid entities.

3. The composition of any of embodiments 1-1D, wherein the composition comprises an amino acid precursor and three amino acid entities.

4. The composition of any of embodiments 1-1D, wherein the composition comprises an amino acid metabolite and three amino acid entities.

5. The composition of any of embodiments 1-1D, wherein the composition comprises an amino acid derivative and three amino acid entities.

6. The composition of any of embodiments 1-1D, wherein the composition comprises two amino acids and two amino acid entities.

7. The composition of any of embodiments 1-1D, wherein the composition comprises two amino acid precursors and two amino acid entities.

8. The composition of any of embodiments 1-1D, wherein the composition comprises two amino acid metabolites and two amino acid entities.

9. The composition of any of embodiments 1-1D, wherein the composition comprises two amino acid derivatives and two amino acid entities.

10. The composition of any of embodiments 1-1D, wherein the composition comprises three amino acids and one amino acid entity.

11. The composition of any of embodiments 1-1D, wherein the composition comprises three amino acid precursors and one amino acid entity.

12. The composition of any of embodiments 1-1D, wherein the composition comprises three amino acid metabolites and one amino acid entity.

13. The composition of any of embodiments 1-1D, wherein the composition comprises three amino acid derivatives and one amino acid entity.

14. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, and a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

15. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 2, 14, or 380, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, R-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

16. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, or 381, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, argininosuccinate, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

17. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, or 382, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, citrulline, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

18. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, or 383, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, aspartate, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

19. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, or 384, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, L-glutamate, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

20. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, or 385, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, ornithine, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

21. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, or 386, wherein the composition comprises a L-leucine, agmatine, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

22. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, or 387, wherein the composition comprises a L-leucine, creatine, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

23. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, or 388, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, D-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

24. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, or 389, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, N-acetyl-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

25. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, or 428, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

26. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, or 429, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, glutamate, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

27. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, or 430, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, carbamoyl-P, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

28. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, or 431, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, D-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

29. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, or 432, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, N-acetyl-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

30. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, or 445, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and NAC.

31. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, or 446, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and serine.

32. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, or 447, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and acetylserine.

33. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, or 448, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and cystathionine.

34. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, or 449, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and glutathione.

35. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, or 450, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and homocysteine.

36. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, or 451, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and methionine.

37. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, or 452, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and D-cysteine.

38. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, or 453, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and L-cysteine.

39. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, or 454, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and cystine.

40. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, 380, or 428, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, L-arginine, L-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

41. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, 381, or 429, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, argininosuccinate, glutamate, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

42. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, 382, or 431, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, citrulline, D-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

43. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, or 383, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, aspartate, N-acetyl-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

44. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, 380, or 445, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, L-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and NAC.

45. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, 381, or 446, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, argininosuccinate, a Q-amino acid entity, and serine.

46. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, 382, or 447, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, citrulline, a Q-amino acid entity, and acetylserine.

47. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, 383, or 448, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, aspartate, a Q-amino acid entity, and cystathionine.

48. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, 384, or 449, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, glutamate, a Q-amino acid entity, and glutathione.

49. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, 385, or 450, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, ornithine, a Q-amino acid entity, and homocysteine.

50. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, 386, or 451, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, agmatine, a Q-amino acid entity, and methionine.

51. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, 387, or 452, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, creatine, a Q-amino acid entity, and D-cysteine.

52. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, 388, or 453, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, D-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and L-cysteine.

53. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, 389, or 454, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, N-acetyl-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and cystine.

54. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, 428, or 445, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine, and NAC.

55. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, 429, or 446, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, glutamate, and serine.

56. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, 430, or 447, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, carbamoyl-P, and acetylserine.

57. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, 432, or 448, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, N-acetyl-glutamine, and cystathionine.

58. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, 433, or 449, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine, and glutathione.

59. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, or 450, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, glutamate, and homocysteine.

60. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, or 451, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, carbamoyl-P, and methionine.

61. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, or 452, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, N-acetyl-glutamine, and D-cysteine.

62. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, or 453, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine, and L-cysteine.

63. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, or 454, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a glutamate, and cystine.

64. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, 380, or 445, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, L-arginine, L-glutamine, and NAC.

65. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, 381, or 446, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, argininosuccinate, glutamate, and serine.

66. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, 382, or 447, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, citrulline, carbamoyl-P, and acetylserine.

67. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, 383, or 448, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, aspartate, D-glutamine, and cystathionine.

68. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, 384, or 449, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, glutamate, L-glutamine, and glutathione.

69. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, 385, or 450, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, ornithine, glutamate, and homocysteine.

70. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, 386, or 451, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, agmatine, carbamoyl-P, and methionine.

71. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, 387, or 452, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, creatine, D-glutamine and D-cysteine.

72. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, 388, or 453, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, D-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and L-cysteine.

73. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 14, 389, or 454, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, N-acetyl-arginine, argininosuccinate, and cystine.

74. The composition of embodiment 1 or 3, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

75. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, and a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

76. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, L-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

77. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, argininosuccinate, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

78. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, citrulline, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

79. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, aspartate, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

80. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, glutamate, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

81. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, ornithine, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

82. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, agmatine, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

83. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, creatine, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

84. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, D-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenge, e.g., a NAC entity.

85. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, N-acetyl-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

86. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

87. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, glutamate, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

88. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, carbamoyl-P, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

89. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, D-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

90. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, N-acetyl-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

91. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and NAC.

92. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and serine.

93. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and acetylserine.

94. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and cystathionine.

95. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and glutathione.

96. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and homocysteine.

97. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and methionine.

98. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and D-cysteine.

99. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and L-cysteine.

100. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and a NAC entity.

101. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and cystine.

102. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, L-arginine, L-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

103. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, argininosuccinate, glutamate, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

104. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, citrulline, D-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

105. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, aspartate, N-acetyl-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

106. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, L-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and NAC.

107. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, argininosuccinate, a Q-amino acid entity, and serine.

108. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, citrulline, a Q-amino acid entity, and acetylserine.

109. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, aspartate, a Q-amino acid entity, and cystathionine.

110. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, glutamate, a Q-amino acid entity, and glutathione.

111. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, ornithine, a Q-amino acid entity, and homocysteine.

112. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, agmatine, a Q-amino acid entity, and methionine.

113. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, creatine, a Q-amino acid entity, and D-cysteine.

114. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, D-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and L-cysteine.

115. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, N-acetyl-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and cystine.

116. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine, and NAC.

117. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, glutamate, and serine.

118. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, carbamoyl-P, and acetylserine.

119. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, N-acetyl-glutamine, and cystathionine.

120. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine, and glutathione.

121. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, glutamate, and homocysteine.

122. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, carbamoyl-P, and methionine.

123. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, N-acetyl-glutamine, and D-cysteine.

124. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine, and L-cysteine.

125. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a glutamate, and cystine.

126. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, L-arginine, L-glutamine, and NAC.

127. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, argininosuccinate, glutamate, and serine.

128. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, citrulline, carbamoyl-P, and acetylserine.

129. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, aspartate, D-glutamine, and cystathionine.

130. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, N-acetyl-glutamine, L-glutamine, and glutathione.

131. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, ornithine, glutamate, and homocysteine.

132. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, agmatine, carbamoyl-P, and methionine.

133. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, creatine, D-glutamine and D-cysteine.

134. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, D-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and L-cysteine.

135. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 74, wherein the composition comprises oxo-leucine, N-acetyl-arginine, argininosuccinate, and cystine.

136. The composition of embodiment 1-1D or 4, wherein the composition comprises HMB, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

137. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, L-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

138. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, argininosuccinate, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

139. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, citrulline, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

140. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, aspartate, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

141. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, glutamate, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

142. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, ornithine, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

143. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, agmatine, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger e.g., a NAC entity.

144. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, creatine, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

145. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, D-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenge e.g., a NAC entity.

146. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, N-acetyl-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

147. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, a R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., an antioxidant, e.g., a NAC entity.

148. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, a R-amino acid entity, glutamate, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., an antioxidant, e.g., a NAC entity.

149. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, a R-amino acid entity, carbamoyl-P, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., an antioxidant, e.g., a NAC entity.

150. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, a R-amino acid entity, D-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., an antioxidant, e.g., a NAC entity.

151. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, a R-amino acid entity, N-acetyl-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., an antioxidant, e.g., a NAC entity.

152. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and NAC.

153. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and serine.

154. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and acetylserine.

155. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and cystathionine.

156. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and glutathione.

157. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and homocysteine.

158. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and methionine.

159. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and D-cysteine.

160. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and L-cysteine.

161. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and cysteine.

162. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and cystine.

163. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, L-arginine, L-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

164. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, argininosuccinate, glutamate, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

165. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, citrulline, D-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

166. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, aspartate, N-acetyl-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

167. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, L-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and NAC.

168. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, argininosuccinate, a Q-amino acid entity, and serine.

169. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, citrulline, a Q-amino acid entity, and acetylserine.

170. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, aspartate, a Q-amino acid entity, and cystathionine.

171. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, glutamate, a Q-amino acid entity, and glutathione.

172. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, ornithine, a Q-amino acid entity, and homocysteine.

173. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, agmatine, a Q-amino acid entity, and methionine.

174. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, creatine, a Q-amino acid entity, and D-cysteine.

175. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, D-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and L-cysteine.

176. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, N-acetyl-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and cystine.

177. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, a R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine, and NAC.

178. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, a R-amino acid entity, glutamate, and serine.

179. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, a R-amino acid entity, carbamoyl-P, and acetylserine.

180. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, a R-amino acid entity, N-acetyl-glutamine, and cystathionine.

181. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, a R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine, and glutathione.

182. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, a R-amino acid entity, glutamate, and homocysteine.

183. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, a R-amino acid entity, carbamoyl-P, and methionine.

184. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, a R-amino acid entity, N-acetyl-glutamine, and D-cysteine.

185. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, a R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine, and L-cysteine.

186. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, a R-amino acid entity, a glutamate, and cystine.

187. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, L-arginine, L-glutamine, and NAC.

188. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, argininosuccinate, glutamate, and serine.

189. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, citrulline, carbamoyl-P, and acetylserine.

190. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, aspartate, D-glutamine, and cystathionine.

191. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, N-acetyl-glutamine, L-glutamine, and glutathione.

192. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, ornithine, glutamate, and homocysteine.

193. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, agmatine, carbamoyl-P, and methionine.

194. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, creatine, D-glutamine and D-cysteine.

195. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, D-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and L-cysteine.

196. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 136, wherein the composition comprises HMB, N-acetyl-arginine, argininosuccinate, and cystine.

197. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, or 4, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

198. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, L-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

199. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, argininosuccinate, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

200. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, citrulline, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

201. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, aspartate, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

202. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, glutamate, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

203. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, ornithine, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

204. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, agmatine, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

205. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, creatine, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

206. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, D-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

207. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, N-acetyl-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

208. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, a R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

209. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, a R-amino acid entity, glutamate, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

210. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, a R-amino acid entity, carbamoyl-P, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

211. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, a R-amino acid entity, D-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

212. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, a R-amino acid entity, N-acetyl-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

213. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and NAC.

214. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and serine.

215. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and acetylserine.

216. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and cystathionine.

217. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and glutathione.

218. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and homocysteine.

219. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and methionine.

220. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and D-cysteine.

221. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and L-cysteine.

222. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and cysteine.

223. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and cystine.

224. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, L-arginine, L-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

225. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, argininosuccinate, glutamate, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

226. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, citrulline, D-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

227. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, aspartate, N-acetyl-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

228. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, L-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and NAC.

229. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, argininosuccinate, a Q-amino acid entity, and serine.

230. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, citrulline, a Q-amino acid entity, and acetylserine.

231. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, aspartate, a Q-amino acid entity, and cystathionine.

232. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, glutamate, a Q-amino acid entity, and glutathione.

233. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, ornithine, a Q-amino acid entity, and homocysteine.

234. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, agmatine, a Q-amino acid entity, and methionine.

235. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, creatine, a Q-amino acid entity, and D-cysteine.

236. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, D-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and L-cysteine.

237. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, N-acetyl-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and cystine.

238. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, a R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine, and NAC.

239. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, a R-amino acid entity, glutamate, and serine.

240. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, a R-amino acid entity, carbamoyl-P, and acetylserine.

241. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, a R-amino acid entity, N-acetyl-glutamine, and cystathionine.

242. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, a R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine, and glutathione.

243. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, a R-amino acid entity, glutamate, and homocysteine.

244. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, a R-amino acid entity, carbamoyl-P, and methionine.

245. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, a R-amino acid entity, N-acetyl-glutamine, and D-cysteine.

246. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, a R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine, and L-cysteine.

247. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, a R-amino acid entity, a glutamate, and cystine.

248. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, L-arginine, L-glutamine, and NAC.

249. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, argininosuccinate, glutamate, and serine.

250. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, citrulline, carbamoyl-P, and acetylserine.

251. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, aspartate, D-glutamine, and cystathionine.

252. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, N-acetyl-glutamine, L-glutamine, and glutathione.

253. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, ornithine, glutamate, and homocysteine.

254. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, agmatine, carbamoyl-P, and methionine.

255. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, creatine, D-glutamine and D-cysteine.

256. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, D-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and L-cysteine.

257. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 197, wherein the composition comprises isovaleryl-CoA, N-acetyl-arginine, argininosuccinate, and cystine.

258. The composition of embodiment 1-1D or 5, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

259. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, L-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

260. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, argininosuccinate, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

261. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, citrulline, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

262. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, aspartate, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

263. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, glutamate, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

264. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein composition comprises D-leucine, ornithine, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

265. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, agmatine, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

266. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, creatine, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

267. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, D-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

268. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, N-acetyl-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

269. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

270. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, glutamate, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

271. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, carbamoyl-P, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

272. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, D-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

273. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, N-acetyl-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

274. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and NAC.

275. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and serine.

276. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and acetylserine.

277. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and cystathionine.

278. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and glutathione.

279. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and homocysteine.

280. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and methionine.

281. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and D-cysteine.

282. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and L-cysteine.

283. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and cysteine.

284. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and cystine.

285. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, L-arginine, L-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

286. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, argininosuccinate, glutamate, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger e.g., a NAC entity.

287. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, citrulline, D-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger e.g., a NAC entity.

288. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, aspartate, N-acetyl-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

289. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, L-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and NAC.

290. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, argininosuccinate, a Q-amino acid entity, and serine.

291. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, citrulline, a Q-amino acid entity, and acetylserine.

292. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, aspartate, a Q-amino acid entity, and cystathionine.

293. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, glutamate, a Q-amino acid entity, and glutathione.

294. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, ornithine, a Q-amino acid entity, and homocysteine.

295. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, agmatine, a Q-amino acid entity, and methionine.

296. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, creatine, a Q-amino acid entity, and D-cysteine.

297. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, D-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and L-cysteine.

298. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, N-acetyl-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and cystine.

299. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine, and NAC.

300. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, glutamate, and serine.

301. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, carbamoyl-P, and acetylserine.

302. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, N-acetyl-glutamine, and cystathionine.

303. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine, and glutathione.

304. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, glutamate, and homocysteine.

305. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, carbamoyl-P, and methionine.

306. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, N-acetyl-glutamine, and D-cysteine.

307. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine, and L-cysteine.

308. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a glutamate, and cystine.

309. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, L-arginine, L-glutamine, and NAC.

310. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, argininosuccinate, glutamate, and serine.

311. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, citrulline, carbamoyl-P, and acetylserine.

312. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, aspartate, D-glutamine, and cystathionine.

313. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, N-acetyl-glutamine, L-glutamine, and glutathione.

314. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, ornithine, glutamate, and homocysteine.

315. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, agmatine, carbamoyl-P, and methionine.

316. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, creatine, D-glutamine and D-cysteine.

317. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, D-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and L-cysteine.

318. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 258, wherein the composition comprises D-leucine, N-acetyl-arginine, argininosuccinate, and cystine.

319. The composition of embodiment 1-1D or 5, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

320. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, L-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

321. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, argininosuccinate, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

322. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, citrulline, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

323. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, aspartate, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

324. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, glutamate, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

325. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, ornithine, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

326. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, agmatine, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

327. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, creatine, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

328. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, D-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

329. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, N-acetyl-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

330. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

331. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, glutamate, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

332. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, carbamoyl-P, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

333. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, D-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

334. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, N-acetyl-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

335. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and NAC.

336. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and serine.

337. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and acetylserine.

338. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and cystathionine.

339. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and glutathione.

340. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and homocysteine.

341. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and methionine.

342. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and D-cysteine.

343. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and L-cysteine.

344. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and cysteine.

345. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and cystine.

346. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, L-arginine, L-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

347. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, argininosuccinate, glutamate, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

348. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, citrulline, D-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

349. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, aspartate, N-acetyl-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

350. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, L-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and NAC.

351. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, argininosuccinate, a Q-amino acid entity, and serine.

352. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, citrulline, a Q-amino acid entity, and acetylserine.

353. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, aspartate, a Q-amino acid entity, and cystathionine.

354. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, glutamate, a Q-amino acid entity, and glutathione.

355. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, ornithine, a Q-amino acid entity, and homocysteine.

356. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, agmatine, a Q-amino acid entity, and methionine.

357. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, creatine, a Q-amino acid entity, and D-cysteine.

358. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, D-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and L-cysteine.

359. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, N-acetyl-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and cystine.

360. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine, and NAC.

361. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, glutamate, and serine.

362. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, carbamoyl-P, and acetylserine.

363. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, N-acetyl-glutamine, and cystathionine.

364. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine, and glutathione.

365. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, glutamate, and homocysteine.

366. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, carbamoyl-P, and methionine.

367. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, N-acetyl-glutamine, and D-cysteine.

368. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine, and L-cysteine.

369. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, a glutamate, and cystine.

370. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, L-arginine, L-glutamine, and NAC.

371. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, argininosuccinate, glutamate, and serine.

372. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, citrulline, carbamoyl-P, and acetylserine.

373. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, aspartate, D-glutamine, and cystathionine.

374. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, N-acetyl-glutamine, L-glutamine, and glutathione.

375. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, ornithine, glutamate, and homocysteine.

376. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, agmatine, carbamoyl-P, and methionine.

377. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, creatine, D-glutamine and D-cysteine.

378. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, D-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and L-cysteine.

379. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 319, wherein the composition comprises N-acetyl-leucine, N-acetyl-arginine, argininosuccinate, and cystine.

380. The composition of embodiment 1-1D or 2, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, L-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

381. The composition of embodiment 1-1D or 2, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, argininosuccinate, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

382. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 4, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, citrulline, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

383. The composition of embodiment 1-1D or 3, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, aspartate, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

384. The composition of embodiment 1-1D or 3, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, glutamate, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

385. The composition of embodiment 1-1D or 4, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, ornithine, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

386. The composition of embodiment 1-1D or 4, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, agmatine, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

387. The composition of embodiment 1-1D or 4, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, creatine, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

388. The composition of embodiment 1-1D or 5, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, D-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

389. The composition of embodiment 1-1D or 5, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, N-acetyl-arginine, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

390. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 384, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, glutamate, L-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

391. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 385, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, ornithine, L-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

392. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 386, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, agmatine, L-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

393. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 387, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, creatine, L-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

394. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 388, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, D-arginine, L-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

395. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 389, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, D-arginine, N-acetyl-arginine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

396. The composition of embodiment 1-1D or 380, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, L-arginine, L-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

397. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, or 381, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, argininosuccinate, glutamate, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

398. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, 4, or 382, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, citrulline, carbamoyl-P, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

399. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 383, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, aspartate, glutamate, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

400. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 384, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, glutamate, D-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

401. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 385, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, ornithine, N-acetyl-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

402. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 386, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, agmatine, L-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

403. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 387, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, creatine, glutamate, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

404. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 388, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, D-arginine, carbamoyl-P, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

405. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 389, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, N-acetyl-arginine, glutamate, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

406. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, 80, or 445, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, L-arginine, L-glutamine, and NAC.

407. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 381, or 446, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, argininosuccinate, glutamate, and serine.

408. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, 4, 382, or 447, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, citrulline, carbamoyl-P, and acetylserine.

409. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, 383, or 448, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, aspartate, glutamate, and cystathionine.

410. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, 384, or 449, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, glutamate, D-glutamine, and glutathione.

411. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, 385, or 448, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, ornithine, N-acetyl-glutamine, and cystathionine.

412. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, 386, or 450, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, agmatine, L-glutamine, and homocysteine.

413. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, 387, or 451, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, creatine, glutamate, and methionine.

414. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, 388, or 454, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, D-arginine, carbamoyl-P, and D-cysteine.

415. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, 389, or 453, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, N-acetyl-arginine, glutamate, and L-cysteine.

416. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 380, or 454, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, L-arginine, L-glutamine, and cystine.

417. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 6, or 445, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, L-arginine, a Q-amino acid, and NAC.

418. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, or 446, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, argininosuccinate, a Q-amino acid, and serine.

419. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 447, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, citrulline, a Q-amino acid, and acetylserine.

420. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 448, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, aspartate, a Q-amino acid, and cystathionine.

421. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 449, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, glutamate, a Q-amino acid, and glutathione.

422. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 448, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, ornithine, a Q-amino acid, and cystathionine.

423. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 450, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, agmatine, a Q-amino acid, and homocysteine.

424. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, or 451, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, creatine, a Q-amino acid, and methionine.

425. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 452, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, D-arginine, a Q-amino acid, and D-cysteine.

426. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 453, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, N-acetyl-arginine, a Q-amino acid, and L-cysteine.

427. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 454, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, L-arginine, a Q-amino acid, and cystine.

428. The composition of embodiment 1-1D or 2, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, a R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

429. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, or 4, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, a R-amino acid entity, glutamate, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

430. The composition of embodiment 1-1D or 4, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, a R-amino acid entity, carbamoyl-P, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

431. The composition of embodiment 1-1D or 5, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, a R-amino acid entity, D-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

432. The composition of embodiment 1-1D or 5, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, a R-amino acid entity, N-acetyl-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

433. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, or 431, wherein the composition comprises a L-leucine, a R-amino acid entity, D-glutamine, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

434. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4 or 430, wherein the composition comprises a L-leucine, L-arginine, carbamoyl-P, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

435. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 428, or 445, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, a R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine, and NAC.

436. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, 429, or 446, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, a R-amino acid entity, glutamate, and serine.

437. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, 430, or 447, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, a R-amino acid entity, carbamoyl-P, and acetylserine.

438. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, 431, or 448, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, a R-amino acid entity, D-glutamine, and cystathionine.

439. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, 432, or 449, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, a R-amino acid entity, N-acetyl-glutamine, and glutathione.

440. The composition of any of embodiments 1-2, 428, or 450, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, a R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine, and homocysteine.

441. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 3, 4, 429, or 451, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, a R-amino acid entity, glutamate, and methionine.

442. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 4, 430, or 452, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, a R-amino acid entity, carbamoyl-P, and D-cysteine

443. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, 431, or 453, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, a R-amino acid entity, D-glutamine, and L-cysteine.

444. The composition of embodiment 1-1D, 5, 432, or 454, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, a R-amino acid entity, N-acetyl-glutamine, and cystine.

445. The composition of embodiment 1-1D or 5, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and NAC.

446. The composition of embodiment 1-1D or 3, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and serine.

447. The composition of embodiment 1-1D or 3, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and acetylserine.

448. The composition of embodiment 1-1D or 3, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and cystathionine.

449. The composition of embodiment 1-1D or 4, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and glutathione.

450. The composition of embodiment 1-1D or 4, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and homocysteine.

451. The composition of embodiment 1-1D or 4, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and methionine.

452. The composition of embodiment 1-1D or 5, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and D-cysteine.

453. The composition of embodiment 1-1D or 5, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and L-cysteine.

454. The composition of embodiment 1-1D or 5, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid entity, a R-amino acid entity, a Q-amino acid entity, and cystine.

455. The composition of embodiment 1-1D or 2, wherein the composition comprises a L-amino acid, ornithine, a Q-amino acid entity, and an antioxidant or ROS scavenger, e.g., a NAC entity.

456. The composition of embodiment 1-1D or 455, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine, ornithine, 1-glutamine, and NAC.

457. The composition of embodiment 1-1D or 455, wherein the composition comprises HMB, ornithine, 1-glutamine, and NAC.

458. The composition of any of the foregoing embodiments, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine or a leucine metabolite (e.g., HMB), L-arginine or an L-arginine metabolite (e.g., creatine), 1-glutamine, and NAC or a NAC metabolite, e.g., glutathione.

459. The composition of any of the foregoing embodiments, wherein the composition comprises L-leucine or a leucine metabolite (e.g., HMB), L-arginine or an L-arginine metabolite (e.g., creatine), L-glutamine, and NAC or a NAC metabolite, e.g., glutathione.

460. The composition of any of the previous embodiments, further comprising an isoleucine (I)-amino acid entity.

461. The composition of embodiment 460, wherein the I-amino acid entity is an amino acid.

462. The composition of embodiment 460 or 461, wherein the amino acid entity is L-isoleucine.

463. The composition of embodiment 460, wherein the I-amino acid entity is an amino acid precursor.

464. The composition of embodiment 460 or 463, wherein the I-amino acid entity is 2-oxo-3-methyl-valerate.

465. The composition of embodiment 460 or 463, wherein the I-amino acid entity is threonine.

466. The composition of embodiment 460, wherein the I-amino acid entity is an amino acid metabolite.

467. The composition of embodiment 460 or 466, wherein the I-amino acid entity is 2-oxo-3-methyl-valerate

468. The composition of embodiment 460 or 466, wherein the I-amino acid entity is methylbutyrl-CoA.

469. The composition of embodiment 460, wherein the I-amino acid entity is an amino acid derivative.

470. The composition of embodiment 460 or 469, wherein the I-amino acid entity is D-isoleucine.

471. The composition of embodiment 460 or 469, wherein the I-amino acid entity is N-acetyl-isoleucine.

472. The composition of any of the previous embodiments, further comprising a valine (V)-amino acid entity.

473. The composition of embodiment 472, wherein the V-amino acid entity is an amino acid.

474. The composition of embodiment 472 or 473, wherein the V-amino acid entity is L-valine.

475. The composition of embodiment 472, wherein the V-amino acid entity is an amino acid precursor.

476. The composition of embodiment 472 or 475, wherein the V-amino acid entity is 2-oxo-valerate.

477. The composition of embodiment 472, wherein the V-amino acid entity is an amino acid metabolite.

478. The composition of embodiment 472 or 477, wherein the V-amino acid entity is isobutryl-CoA.

479. The composition of embodiment 472 or 477, wherein the V-amino acid entity is 3-HIB-CoA.

480. The composition of embodiment 472 or 477, wherein the V-amino acid entity is 3-HIB.

481. The composition of embodiment 472, wherein the V-amino acid entity is an amino acid derivative.

482. The composition of embodiment 472 or 481, wherein the V-amino acid entity is D-valine.

483. The composition of embodiment 472 or 481, wherein the V-amino acid entity is N-acetyl-valine.

484. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments, further comprising L-glycine.

485. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments, further comprising an S-amino acid entity (e.g., L-serine, phosphoserine, P-hydroxypyruvate, L-glycine, tryptophan, acetylserine, cystathionine, phosphatidylserine, or any combination thereof, e.g., L-serine and L-glycine).

486. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments, further comprising carnitine.

487. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments, comprising:

a) a L-amino acid entity chosen from L-leucine or a salt thereof, or β-hydroxy-β-methybutyrate (HMB) or a salt thereof or a combination of L-leucine or a salt thereof and HMB or a salt thereof;

b) an R-amino acid entity chosen from L-arginine or a salt thereof, ornithine or a salt thereof, or creatine or a salt thereof or a combination of two or three of L-arginine or a salt thereof, ornithine or a salt thereof, or creatine or a salt thereof;

c) L-glutamine or a salt thereof; and

d) N-acetylcysteine (NAC) or a salt thereof.

488. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the L-Leucine is provided as part of a dipeptide comprising L-Leucine, or a salt thereof, or a tripeptide comprising L-Leucine, or a salt thereof.

489. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the L-Arginine is provided as part of a dipeptide comprising L-Arginine, or a salt thereof, or a tripeptide comprising L-Arginine, or a salt thereof.

490. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the L-Glutamine is provided as part of a dipeptide comprising L-Glutamine, or a salt thereof, or a tripeptide comprising L-Glutamine, or a salt thereof

491. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the NAC is provided as a part of a dipeptide comprising NAC, or a salt thereof, or a tripeptide comprising NAC, or a salt thereof.

492. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein one, two, three, or four of methionine (M), tryptophan (W), valine (V), or cysteine (C) is absent, or if present, is present at less than 10 weight (wt.) % of the composition.

493. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the total wt. % of (a)-(d) is greater than the total wt. % of any other amino acid entity in the composition.

494. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein one, two, three, or four of the amino acids in (a)-(d) is provided as part of a dipeptide or tripeptide, e.g., in an amount of at least 10 wt. % of the composition.

495. The composition of embodiment 494, wherein the dipeptide is a homodipeptide or heterodipeptide of any of the amino acids in (a)-(d), e.g., one, two, three, or four of the amino acids in (a)-(d) is a homodipeptide or heterodipeptide.

496. The composition of embodiment 494, wherein the tripeptide is a homotripeptide or heterotripeptide of any of the amino acids in (a)-(d), e.g., one, two, three, or four of the amino acids in (a)-(d) is a homotripeptide or heterotripeptide.

497. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein (a) is a L-amino acid entity dipeptide or a salt thereof (e.g., a L-leucine dipeptide or a salt thereof)

498. The composition of embodiment 497, wherein (a) is a homodipeptide or a heterodipeptide, e.g., Ala-Leu.

499. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein (b) is a L-arginine dipeptide or a salt thereof.

500. The composition of embodiment 499, wherein (b) is a homodipeptide or a heterodipeptide, e.g., Ala-Arg.

501. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein (c) is a L-glutamine dipeptide or a salt thereof.

502. The composition of embodiment 501, wherein (c) is a homodipeptide, e.g., Gln-Gln, or wherein (c) is a heterodipeptide, e.g., Ala-Gln.

503. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein:

f) a wt. % of the L-glutamine or a salt thereof in the composition is greater than the wt. % of the R-amino acid entity;

g) the wt. % of the L-glutamine or a salt thereof in the composition is greater than the wt. % of the L-amino acid entity;

h) the wt. % of the R-amino acid entity in the composition is greater than the wt. % of the L-amino acid entity; or

i) a combination of two or three of (f)-(h).

504. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the wt. % of the L-glutamine or a salt thereof in the composition is at least 5% greater than the wt. % of the R-amino acid entity, e.g., the wt. % of the L-glutamine or a salt thereof is at least 10%, 15%, 20%, or 25% greater than the wt. % of the R-amino acid entity

505. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the wt. % of the L-glutamine or a salt thereof in the composition is at least 20% greater than the wt. % of the L-amino acid entity, e.g., the wt. % of the L-glutamine or a salt thereof in the composition is at least 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% greater than the wt. % of the L-amino acid entity.

506. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the wt. % of the R-amino acid entity in the composition is at least 10% greater than the wt. % of the L-amino acid entity, e.g., the wt. % of the R-amino acid entity in the composition is at least 15%, 20%, 25%, or 30% greater than the wt. % of the L-amino acid entity.

507. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein:

j) the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the R-amino acid entity is at least 1:4, or at least 2:5, and not more than 3:4, e.g., the ratio of L-amino acid entity to R-amino acid entity is about 2:3;

k) the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or a salt thereof is at least 1:4, or least 1:3, and not more than 3:4, e.g., the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or a salt thereof is about 1:2;

l) the ratio of the R-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or a salt thereof is at least 1:4, or least 1:2, and not more than 6:7, e.g., the ratio of the R-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or a salt thereof is about 3:4; or

m) a combination of two or three of (j)-(l).

508. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments, further comprising one or both of an isoleucine (I)-amino acid-entity and a valine (V)-amino acid-entity, e.g., both the I-amino acid-entity and the V-amino acid-entity are present.

509. The composition of embodiment 508, wherein:

n) the wt. % of the L-amino acid-entity in the composition is greater than or equal to the wt. % of the I-amino acid-entity and the V-amino acid-entity in combination;

o) the wt. % of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination in the composition is greater than or equal to the wt. % of the L-glutamine or a salt thereof;

p) the wt. % of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination in the composition is less than the wt. % of the R-amino acid entity;

q) the wt. % of the R-amino acid entity and the L-glutamine or a salt thereof in the composition is greater than the wt. % of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination; or

r) a combination of two, three, or four of (n)-(q).

510. The composition of embodiment 508 or 509, wherein:

s) the wt. % of the R-amino acid entity, the L-glutamine or a salt thereof, and the NAC or a salt thereof is at least 50% of the composition, or at least 70% of the composition, but not more than 90% of the composition;

t) the wt. % of the NAC or a salt thereof is at least 1%, or at least 2%, but not more than 10% of the composition;

u) the wt. % of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination is at least 15%, or at least 20%, but not more than 50% of the composition;

v) the wt. % of the R-amino acid entity, the L-glutamine or a salt thereof, and the NAC or a salt thereof is at least 40%, or at least 50%, but not more than 80% of the composition; or w) a combination of two, three, or four of (s)-(v).

511. The composition of any of embodiments 508-510, wherein:

x) the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the I-amino acid entity is at least 1.5:1, or at least 1.75:1, and not more than 2.5 to 1 or not more than 3:1, e.g., the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the I-amino acid entity is about 2:1;

y) the ratio of L-amino acid entity to V-amino acid entity is at least 1.5:1, or at least 1.75:1, and not more than 2.5 to 1 or not more than 3:1, e.g., the ratio of L to V is about 2:1;

z) the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the R-amino acid entity is greater than 1:3, greater than 1.5 to 3, and less than 3:3, e.g., the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the R-amino acid entity is about 2:3;

aa) the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or a salt thereof is greater than 1:4, greater than 1.5 to 4 and less than 4:4, or less than 3:4, e.g., the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or a salt thereof is about 1:2; or

bb) a combination of two, three, or four of (x)-(aa).

512. The composition of any of embodiments 508-511, wherein:

cc) the ratio of the I-amino acid entity to the V-amino acid entity is at least 0.5:1, or at least 0.75:1, and not more than 1.5 to 1 or not more than 2:1, e.g., the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the I-amino acid entity is about 1:1;

dd) the ratio of the I-amino acid entity to the R-amino acid entity is at least 0.5:3, or at least 0.75:3, and not more than 2:3, or not more than 1.5:3, e.g., the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the I-amino acid entity is about 1:3;

ee) the ratio of the I-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or a salt thereof is at least 0.5:4, or at least 0.75:4, and not more than 3:4, or not more than 2:4, e.g., the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or a salt thereof is about 1:4; or

ff) or a combination of two or three of (cc)-(ee).

513. The composition of any of embodiments 508-512, wherein:

gg) the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the V-amino acid entity is at least 1.5:1, or at least 1.75:1, and not more than 2.5 to 1 or not more than 3:1, e.g., is the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the V-amino acid entity is about 2:1;

hh) the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the R-amino acid entity is greater than 1:3, greater than 1.5 to 3, and less than 3:3, e.g., the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the R-amino acid entity is about 2:3;

ii) the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or a salt thereof is greater than 1:4, greater than 1.5 to 4 and less than 4:4, or less than 3:4, e.g., the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or a salt thereof is about 1:2; or

jj) a combination of two or three of (gg)-(ii).

514. The composition of any of embodiments 508-513, wherein:

kk) the ratio of the V-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or a salt thereof is at least 0.5:4, or at least 0.75:4, and not more than 3:4, or not more than 2:4, e.g., the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or a salt thereof is about 1:4;

ll) the ratio of the V-amino acid entity to the R-amino acid entity is at least 0.5:3, or at least 0.75:3, and not more than 2:3, or not more than 1.5:3, e.g., the ratio of the V-amino acid entity to the R-amino acid entity is about 1:3;

mm) the ratio of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination to the R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine or a salt thereof, and NAC or a salt thereof is at least 1:4, or at least 2:3, or not more than 5:7, or not more than 6:7, e.g., the ratio is about 6:11; or

nn) a combination of two or three of (kk)-(mm).

515. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein:

oo) a wt. % of the L-amino acid entity in the composition is greater than the wt. % of the NAC or a salt thereof;

pp) a wt. % of the R-amino acid entity in the composition is greater than the wt. % of the NAC or a salt thereof;

qq) a wt. % of the L-glutamine or a salt thereof in the composition is greater than the wt. % of the NAC or a salt thereof; or

rr) a combination of two or three of (oo)-(qq).

516. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein at least one of the amino acids of (a)-(d) is a free amino acid, e.g., two, three, or four of the amino acids of (a)-(d) are a free amino acid, e.g., at least 50 wt. % of the total wt. of the composition is one or more amino acid entities in free form.

517. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein at least one of the amino acids of (a)-(d) is in a salt form, e.g., one, two, three, or four of the amino acids of (a)-(d) is in a salt form, e.g., at least 10 wt. % of the total wt. of the composition is one or more amino acid entities in salt form.

518. The composition of embodiment 517, wherein at least 10 wt. % of the total wt. of the composition is one or more amino acid entities in salt form.

519. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the composition is capable of one, two, three, four, five, or all of:

a) decreasing or preventing liver fibrosis;

b) decreasing or preventing liver injury;

c) decreasing or preventing hepatocyte inflammation;

d) improving, e.g., increasing, glucose tolerance;

e) decreasing or preventing steatosis;

f) decreasing or preventing hepatocyte ballooning; or

g) improving gut function.

520. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the composition further comprises a serine (S)-amino acid entity, e.g., a S-amino acid entity chosen from L-serine, phosphoserine, P-hydroxypyruvate, L-glycine, tryptophan, acetylserine, cystathionine, cysteine, phosphatidylserine, and D-serine or a combination thereof, e.g., a combination of L-serine and L-glycine.

521. The composition of embodiment 520, wherein the composition comprises an L-amino acid entity, an I-amino acid entity, an V-amino acid entity, an R-amino acid entity, an L-glutamine or a salt thereof, an NAC or a salt thereof, and an L-glycine.

522. The composition of embodiment 520, wherein the composition comprises an L-amino acid entity, an I-amino acid entity, an V-amino acid entity, an R-amino acid entity, an L-glutamine or a salt thereof, an NAC or a salt thereof, and an L-serine.

523. The composition of embodiment 520, wherein the composition comprises an L-amino acid entity, an I-amino acid entity, an V-amino acid entity, an R-amino acid entity, an L-glutamine or a salt thereof, an NAC or a salt thereof, an L-glycine, and an L-serine.

524. The composition of any of embodiments 520-523, wherein the wt. ratio of the L-amino acid entity, the I-amino acid entity, the V-amino acid entity, the R-amino acid entity, the L-glutamine or salt thereof, and the NAC or salt thereof is about 1:0.5:0.5:1.5:2:0.15 or about 1:0.5:0.5:1.5:2:0.3.

525. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the wt. ratio of the L-amino acid entity, the R-amino acid entity, the L-glutamine or a salt thereof, and the NAC or salt thereof is about 0.5 to 3:0.5 to 4:1 to 4:0.1 to 2.5, e.g., the wt. ratio of the L-amino acid entity, the R-amino acid entity, the L-glutamine or a salt thereof, and the NAC or salt thereof is about 1:1.5:2:0.15 or about 1:1.5:2:0.3.

526. The composition of embodiment 525, wherein the wt. ratio of the L-amino acid entity, the R-amino acid entity, the L-glutamine or a salt thereof, and the NAC or salt thereof is about 1:0.75:2:0.15 or about 1:0.75:2:0.3.

527. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the wt. ratio of the L-amino acid entity, the I-amino acid entity, the V-amino acid entity, the R-amino acid entity, the L-glutamine or salt thereof, and the NAC or salt thereof is about 1:0.5:0.5:1.5:2:0.15 or about 1:0.5:0.5:1.5:2:0.3.

528. The composition of any of embodiments 13-33, wherein the composition comprises about 0.5 g to about 10 g of the L-amino acid entity, about 0.25 g to about 5 g of the I-amino acid entity, about 0.25 g to about 5 g of the V-amino acid entity, about 0.5 g to about 20 g of the R-amino acid entity, about 1 g to about 20 g of the L-glutamine or a salt thereof, and about 0.1 g to about 5 g of the NAC or salt thereof, e.g., the composition comprises about 1 g of the L-amino acid entity, about 0.5 g of the I-amino acid entity, about 0.5 g of V-amino acid entity, about 1.5 g of R-amino acid entity, about 2 g of L-glutamine or a salt thereof, and about 0.15 g or about 0.3 g of NAC or salt thereof.

529. The composition of embodiment 528, wherein the composition comprises about 4 g of the L-amino acid entity, about 2 g of the I-amino acid entity, about 1 g of V-amino acid entity, about 3 g of R-amino acid entity, about 4 g of L-glutamine or a salt thereof, and about 0.9 g of NAC or a salt thereof.

530. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the composition comprises:

-   -   a) L-leucine or a salt thereof;     -   b) L-isoleucine or a salt thereof;     -   c) L-valine or a salt thereof;     -   b) L-arginine or a salt thereof;     -   e) L-glutamine or a salt thereof; and     -   f) NAC or a salt thereof.

531. The composition of embodiment 530, wherein the L-Leucine is provided as part of a dipeptide comprising L-Leucine, or a salt thereof, or a tripeptide comprising L-Leucine, or a salt thereof.

532. The composition of embodiment 530 or 531, wherein the L-Isoleucine is provided as part of a dipeptide comprising L-Isoleucine, or a salt thereof, or a tripeptide comprising L-Isoleucine, or a salt thereof.

533. The composition of any of embodiments 530-532, wherein the L-Valine is provided as part of a dipeptide comprising L-Valine, or a salt thereof, or a tripeptide comprising L-Valine, or a salt thereof.

534. The composition of any of embodiments 530-533, wherein the L-Arginine is provided as part of a dipeptide comprising L-Arginine, or a salt thereof, or a tripeptide comprising L-Arginine, or a salt thereof.

535. The composition of any of embodiments 530-534, wherein the L-Glutamine is provided as part of a dipeptide comprising L-Glutamine, or a salt thereof, or a tripeptide comprising L-Glutamine, or a salt thereof.

536. The composition of any of embodiments 530-535, wherein the NAC is provided as a part of a dipeptide comprising NAC, or a salt thereof, or a tripeptide comprising NAC, or a salt thereof.

537. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the composition comprises a combination of 4 to 20 different amino acid entities, e.g., a combination of 5 to 15 different amino acid entities.

538. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein at least two, three, four, or more amino acid entities is not a peptide of more than 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20 amino acid residues in length.

539. A method for improving liver function, wherein the method comprises administering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of a composition of any of the preceding embodiments.

540. The method of embodiment 539, wherein the L-Leucine is provided as part of a dipeptide comprising L-Leucine, or a salt thereof, or a tripeptide comprising L-Leucine, or a salt thereof.

541. The method of embodiment 539 or 540, wherein the L-Arginine is provided as part of a dipeptide comprising L-Arginine, or a salt thereof, or a tripeptide comprising L-Arginine, or a salt thereof.

542. The method of any of embodiments 539-541, wherein the L-Glutamine is provided as part of a dipeptide comprising L-Glutamine, or a salt thereof, or a tripeptide comprising L-Glutamine, or a salt thereof.

543. The method of any of embodiments 539-542, wherein the NAC is provided as a part of a dipeptide comprising NAC, or a salt thereof, or a tripeptide comprising NAC, or a salt thereof.

544. A method for treating one or more symptoms selected from the group consisting of decreased fat metabolism, hepatocyte apoptosis, hepatocyte ballooning, inflammation of adipose tissue, inflammation of hepatic tissue, fibrosis, liver injury, steatosis, glucose tolerance, and oxidative stress, wherein the method comprises administering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of a composition of any of the preceding embodiments.

545. The method of embodiment 544, wherein the L-Leucine is provided as part of a dipeptide comprising L-Leucine, or a salt thereof, or a tripeptide comprising L-Leucine, or a salt thereof.

546. The method of embodiment 544 or 545, wherein the L-Arginine is provided as part of a dipeptide comprising L-Arginine, or a salt thereof, or a tripeptide comprising L-Arginine, or a salt thereof.

547. The method of any of embodiments 544-546, wherein the L-Glutamine is provided as part of a dipeptide comprising L-Glutamine, or a salt thereof, or a tripeptide comprising L-Glutamine, or a salt thereof.

548. The method of any of embodiments 544-547, wherein the NAC is provided as a part of a dipeptide comprising NAC, or a salt thereof, or a tripeptide comprising NAC, or a salt thereof.

549. A method for treating fatty liver disease, wherein the method comprises administering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of a composition of any of the preceding embodiments.

550. The method of embodiment 549, wherein the L-Leucine is provided as part of a dipeptide comprising L-Leucine, or a salt thereof, or a tripeptide comprising L-Leucine, or a salt thereof.

551. The method of embodiment 549 or 550, wherein the L-Arginine is provided as part of a dipeptide comprising L-Arginine, or a salt thereof, or a tripeptide comprising L-Arginine, or a salt thereof.

552. The method of any of embodiments 549-551, wherein the L-Glutamine is provided as part of a dipeptide comprising L-Glutamine, or a salt thereof, or a tripeptide comprising L-Glutamine, or a salt thereof.

553. The method of any of embodiments 549-552, wherein the NAC is provided as a part of a dipeptide comprising NAC, or a salt thereof, or a tripeptide comprising NAC, or a salt thereof.

554. The method of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the subject has a disease or disorder selected from the group consisting of non-alcoholic fatty liver (NAFL), non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), alcoholic fatty liver disease (AFLD), and alcoholic steatohepatitis (ASH).

555. The method of embodiment 554, wherein the subject has pediatric NAFLD.

556. The method of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the subject has a high BMI, obesity, gut leakiness, gut dysbiosis or gut microbiome disturbance.

557. The method of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the subject has cirrhosis, hepatocarcinoma, an increased risk of liver failure, an increased risk of death, metabolic syndrome, or type 2 diabetes.

558. The method of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the subject has increased levels of inflammatory cytokines relative to a normal subject, e.g., the subject has increased levels of TNFα relative to a normal subject e.g., without the one or more symptoms or without the fatty liver disease.

559. The method of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the patient exhibits muscle atrophy or has a decreased ratio of muscle tissue to adipose tissue relative to a normal subject, e.g., without the one or more symptoms or without a fatty liver disease, e.g., the patient exhibits muscle atrophy without one or both of fibrosis or cirrhosis.

560. The method of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the subject exhibits reverse lipid transport from adipose tissue to liver tissue.

561. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the composition comprises free amino acids, wherein the amino acids comprise arginine, glutamine, N-acetylcysteine, and a branched-chain amino acid chosen from one, two, or all of leucine, isoleucine, and valine.

562. The composition of embodiment 561, wherein the branched-chain amino acid is leucine, isoleucine, and valine.

563. The composition of embodiment 561 or 562, wherein the wt ratio of leucine, isoleucine, valine, arginine, glutamine, N-acetylcysteine is 1:0.5:0.5:1.5:2:0.15.

564. The composition of any of embodiments 561-563, wherein a total weight (wt) of the amino acids is about 2 g to about 60 g.

565. The composition of embodiment 564, wherein the total wt of the amino acids is about 6 g, about 12 g, about 18 g, about 24 g, or about 48 g.

566. The composition of any of embodiments 561-565, wherein the composition comprises about 0.5 g to about 10 g of leucine, about 0.25 g to about 5 g of isoleucine, about 0.25 g to about 5 g of valine, about 1 g to about 20 g of arginine, about 1 g to about 20 g of glutamine, and about 0.1 g to about 5 g of N-acetylcysteine.

567. The composition of embodiment 566, wherein the composition comprises about 1 g of leucine, about 0.5 g of isoleucine, about 0.5 g of valine, about 1.5 g of arginine, about 2 g of glutamine, and about 0.15 g of N-acetylcysteine.

568. The composition of embodiment 566, wherein the composition comprises about 2 g of leucine, about 1 g of isoleucine, about 1 g of valine, about 3.0 g of arginine, about 4 g of glutamine, and about 0.3 g of N-acetylcysteine.

569. The composition of embodiment 566, wherein the composition comprises about 4 g of leucine, about 2 g of isoleucine, about 2 g of valine, about 6.0 g of arginine, about 8 g of glutamine, and about 0.6 g of N-acetylcysteine.

570. The composition of any of embodiments 561-566, wherein the amino acids comprise about 10 wt % to about 30 wt % leucine, about 5 wt % to about 15 wt % isoleucine, about 5 wt % to about 15 wt % valine, about 15 wt % to about 40 wt % arginine, about 20 wt % to about 50 wt % glutamine, and about 1 wt % to about 8 wt % n-acetylcysteine.

571. The composition of embodiment 570, wherein the amino acids comprise about 16 wt % to about 18 wt % leucine, about 7 wt % to about 9 wt % isoleucine, about 7 wt % to about 9 wt % valine, about 28 wt % to about 32 wt % arginine, about 31 wt % to about 34 wt % glutamine, and about 1 wt % to about 5 wt % n-acetylcysteine.

572. The composition of embodiment 571, wherein the amino acids comprise about 16.8 wt % leucine, about 8.4 wt % isoleucine, about 8.4 wt % valine, about 30.4 wt % arginine, about 33.6 wt % glutamine, and about 2.5 wt % n-acetylcysteine.

573. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the composition further comprises one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients.

574. The composition of embodiment 573, wherein the excipients are selected from the group consisting of citric acid, lecithin, a sweetener, a dispersion enhancer, a flavoring, a bitterness masking agent, and a natural or artificial coloring.

575. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the composition is in the form of a solid, powder, solution, or gel.

576. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the amino acids consist of leucine, isoleucine, valine, arginine, glutamine and N-acetylcysteine.

577. A method for treating one or more symptoms selected from the group consisting of decreased fat metabolism, hepatocyte apoptosis, hepatocyte ballooning, inflammation of adipose tissue, inflammation of hepatic tissue, fibrosis, and oxidative stress, wherein the method comprises administering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of the composition of any one of embodiments 561-576.

578. The method of embodiment 577, wherein the subject has non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD).

579. The method of embodiment 577 or 578, wherein the subject has pediatric NAFLD.

580. The method of embodiment 578 or 579, wherein the patient has steatosis.

581. The method of embodiment 577, wherein the subject has non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH).

582. The method of embodiment 581, wherein the subject has fibrosis.

583. The method of embodiment 577, wherein the subject has cirrhosis.

584. The method of embodiment 583, wherein the subject has hepatocarcinoma, an increased risk of liver failure, or an increased risk of death.

585. The method of any of embodiments 577-584, wherein the subject has type 2 diabetes.

586. A method for treating non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) comprising administering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of the composition of any of embodiments 561-576.

587. The method of embodiment 586, wherein the subject has pediatric NAFLD.

588. The method of embodiment 586 or 587, wherein the patient has steatosis.

589. A method for treating non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) comprising administering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of the composition of any of embodiments 561-576.

590. The method of embodiment 589, wherein the subject has fibrosis.

591. A method for treating cirrhosis comprising administering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of the composition of any of embodiments 561-576.

592. The method of embodiment 591, wherein the subject has hepatocarcinoma, an increased risk of liver failure, or an increased risk of death.

593. The method of any of embodiments 577-592, wherein administering the composition results in an improvement in one or more metabolic symptoms in the subject.

594. The method of embodiment 593, wherein the improvement in one or more metabolic symptoms is selected from the following: increased free fatty acid and lipid metabolism, improved mitochondrial function, white adipose tissue (WAT) browning, decreased reactive oxygen species (ROS), increased levels of glutathione (GSH), decreased hepatic inflammation, decreased hepatocyte ballooning, improved gut barrier function, increased insulin secretion, or glucose tolerance.

595. The method of embodiment 594, wherein the increased free fatty acid and lipid metabolism occurs in the liver.

596. The method of embodiment 594 or 595, wherein administration of the composition results in an improvement in one or more metabolic symptoms after a treatment period of 24 hours.

597. The method of any of embodiments 577-596, wherein the method further comprises determining the level of one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, or more (e.g., all) of the following:

-   -   a) alanine aminotransferase (ALT);     -   b) aspartate aminotransferase (AST);     -   c) adiponectin;     -   d) N-terminal fragment of type III collagen (proC3);     -   e) caspase-cleaved keratin 18 fragments (M30 and M65);     -   f) IL-1 beta;     -   g) C-reactive protein;     -   h) PIIINP;     -   i) TIMP1;     -   j) MCP-1; or     -   k) FGF-21.

598. The method of embodiment 597, wherein administration of the composition results in an improvement in one or more of a)-k) after a treatment period of 24 hours.

599. The method of any of embodiments 577-598, wherein the composition is administered prior to a meal.

600. The method of any of embodiments 577-598, wherein the composition is administered concurrent with a meal.

601. The method of any of embodiments 577-598, wherein the composition is administered following a meal.

602. The method of any of embodiments 577-601, wherein the composition is administered with a second agent.

603. The method of embodiment 602, wherein the second agent is selected from the group consisting of a farnesoid X receptor (FXR) agonist, a stearoyl CoA desaturase inhibitor, a CCR2 and CCR5 chemokine antagonist, a PPAR alpha and delta agonist, a caspase inhibitor, a galectin-3 inhibitor, an acetyl CoA carboxylase inhibitor, or an ileal sodium bile acid co-transporter inhibitor.

604. A dietary composition comprising the composition of any of embodiments 561-576, e.g., wherein the dietary composition is chosen from a medical food, a functional food, or a supplement.

605. The composition of any of embodiments 561-576 for use as a dietary composition, e.g., wherein the dietary composition is chosen from a medical food, a functional food, or a supplement.

606. The dietary composition of embodiment 605, wherein the subject has type 2 diabetes and/or a relatively high BMI.

607. The dietary composition of any of embodiments 605 or 606, wherein the subject has non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD).

608. The dietary composition of any of embodiments 605-607, wherein the subject has pediatric NAFLD.

609. The dietary composition of any of embodiments 605-608, wherein the patient has steatosis.

610. The dietary composition of any of embodiments 605-609, wherein the subject has non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH).

611. The dietary composition of embodiment 610, wherein the subject has fibrosis.

612. The dietary composition of any of embodiments 604-606, wherein the subject has cirrhosis.

613. The dietary composition of embodiment 612, wherein the subject has hepatocarcinoma, an increased risk of liver failure, or an increased risk of death.

614. The dietary composition of any of embodiments 604-613, wherein the subject has type 2 diabetes.

615. The dietary composition of any of embodiments 604-614, wherein the composition promotes weight loss in the subject.

616. The method or dietary composition of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the composition is administered at a dose of about 15 g/d to about 90 g/d.

617. The method or dietary composition of embodiment 616, wherein the composition is administered at a dose of about 18 g/d, about 24 g/d, about 36/d, about 54 g/d, or about 72 g/d.

618. The method or dietary composition of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the composition is administered one, two, to three times per day.

619. The method or dietary composition of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the composition is administered at a dose of about 6 g, about 8 g, about 12 g, about 16 g, about 18 g, or about 24 g three times per day.

620. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein:

1) the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the I-amino acid entity is at least 1.5:1, or at least 1.75:1, and not more than 2.5:1 or not more than 3:1, e.g., the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the I-amino acid entity is about 2:1;

2) the ratio of L-amino acid entity to V-amino acid entity is at least 2:1, at least 3:1, at least 3.5:1, at least 4:1, or at least 5:1, and not more than 6:1, e.g., the ratio of L-amino acid entity to V-amino acid entity is about 4:1;

3) the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the R-amino acid entity is at least 1:1, at least 3.5:3, at least 4:3, or at least 2:1, and not more than 5:2, e.g., the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the R-amino acid entity is about 4:3;

4) the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or a salt thereof is at least 0.5:1, or at least 0.75:1, and not more than 1.5 to 1 or not more than 2:1, e.g., the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or salt thereof is about 1:1;

5) the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the NAC entity or a salt thereof is at least 2:1, at least 3:1, at least 3.5:1, or at least 4:1, and not more than 5 to 1 or not more than 6:1, e.g., the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the NAC entity or salt thereof is about 4:1 (e.g., 4:0.9);

6) optionally wherein the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity or a salt thereof is greater than 1:3, greater than 1.5:3, about 2:3, or about 3:5, and not more than 2.5:3 or 1:1, e.g., the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity is about 2:3, or the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity is about 3:5; or

7) a combination of two, three, four, five, or six of (1)-(6).

621. The composition of embodiment 620, wherein:

8) the ratio of I-amino acid entity to V-amino acid entity is at least 1:1, at least 1.5:1, or about 2:1, and not more than 2.5:1 or not more than 3:1, e.g., the ratio of I-amino acid entity to V-amino acid entity is about 2:1;

9) the ratio of the I-amino acid entity to the R-amino acid entity is greater than 1:3, greater than 1.5:3, or about 2:3, and not more than 2.5:3 or not more than 1:1, e.g., the ratio of the I-amino acid entity to the R-amino acid entity is about 2:3;

10) the ratio of the I-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or a salt thereof is at least 1:4, at least 1:3, or about 1:2, and not more than 1:1 or not more than 2:1, e.g., the ratio of the I-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or salt thereof is about 1:2;

11) the ratio of the I-amino acid entity to the NAC entity or a salt thereof is at least 1:1, at least 1.5:1, or about 2:1, and not more than 2.5:1 or not more than 3:1, e.g., the ratio of the I-amino acid entity to the NAC entity or salt thereof is about 2:1 (e.g., 2:0.9);

12) optionally wherein the ratio of the I-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity or a salt thereof is greater than 1:4, greater than 1.5:4, about 1:3, or about 3:10, and not more than 1.5:3 or 2:3, e.g., the ratio of the I-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity is about 1:3, or the ratio of the I-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity is about 3:10; or

13) a combination of two, three, four, or five of (8)-(12).

622. The composition of embodiment 620 or 621, wherein:

14) the ratio of the V-amino acid entity to the R-amino acid entity is greater than 1:4, greater than 1.5:4, or about 1:3, and not more than 1:2 or not more than 1:1, e.g., the ratio of the V-amino acid entity to the R-amino acid entity is about 1:3;

15) the ratio of the V-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or a salt thereof is greater than 1:5, or greater than 1.5:5, about 1:4, and not more than 1.5:4 or not more than 1:3, e.g., the ratio of the V-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or salt thereof is about 1:4;

16) the ratio of the V-amino acid entity to the NAC entity or a salt thereof is at least 1:2, at least 1.5:2, or about 1:1, and not more than 1.5:1 or not more than 2:1, e.g., the ratio of the V-amino acid entity to the NAC entity or salt thereof is about 1:1 (e.g., 1:0.9);

17) optionally wherein the ratio of the V-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity or a salt thereof is greater than 1:8, greater than 1:7, about 1:6, or about 3:20, and not more than 1.5:6 or 1:3, e.g., the ratio of the V-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity is about 1:6, or the ratio of the V-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity is about 3:20; or

18) a combination of two, three, or four of (14)-(17).

623. The composition of any of embodiments 620-622, wherein:

19) the ratio of the R-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or a salt thereof is greater than 1:2, greater than 1.25:2, or about 3:4, and not more than 3.5:4 or not more than 1:1, e.g., the ratio of the R-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or salt thereof is about 3:4;

20) the ratio of the R-amino acid entity to the NAC entity or a salt thereof is at least 4:1, at least 4:1.5, or about 3:1, and not more than 3:1.5 or not more than 3:2, e.g., the ratio of the R-amino acid entity to the NAC entity or salt thereof is about 3:1 (e.g., 3:0.9);

21) optionally wherein the ratio of the R-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity or a salt thereof is greater than 1:4, greater than 1:3, about 1:2, or about 9:20, and not more than 1.5:2 or 1:1, e.g., the ratio of the R-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity is about 1:2, or the ratio of the R-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity is about 9:20; or

22) a combination of two or three of (19)-(21).

624. The composition of any of embodiments 620-623, wherein:

23) the ratio of the L-glutamine to the NAC entity or a salt thereof is at least 5:1, at least 5:1.5, or about 4:1, and not more than 4:1.5 or not more than 3:1, e.g., the ratio of the L-glutamine to the NAC entity or salt thereof is about 4:1 (e.g., 4:0.9);

24) optionally wherein the ratio of the L-glutamine to the S-amino acid entity or a salt thereof is greater than 1:3, greater than 1.25:3, about 2:3, or about 3:5, and not more than 2.5:3 or 1:1, e.g., the ratio of the L-glutamine to the S-amino acid entity is about 2:3, or the ratio of the L-glutamine to the S-amino acid entity is about 3:5; or

25) a combination of (23) and (24).

625. The composition of any of embodiments 620-624, wherein:

26) the ratio of the NAC entity to the S-amino acid entity or a salt thereof is greater than 1:8, greater than 1:7, or about 1:6, and not more than 1:5 or not more than 1.5:5, e.g., the ratio of the NAC entity to the S-amino acid entity is about 1:6 (e.g., 0.9:6 or 2.7:20).

626. The composition of any of embodiments 620-625, wherein the composition satisfies the properties of (1)-(7) defined above.

627. The composition of any of embodiments 620-626, wherein the composition satisfies the properties of at least 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or 7 of any of properties (1)-(26) defined above.

628. The composition of any of embodiments 620-627, wherein the ratio of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination to the R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine or a salt thereof, and NAC or a salt thereof is 12:6:3:9:12:2.7.

629. The composition of any of embodiments 620-628, wherein the ratio of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination to the R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine or a salt thereof, NAC or a salt thereof, and the S-amino acid entity is 12:6:3:9:12:2.7:18.

630. The composition of any of embodiments 620-629, wherein the ratio of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination to the R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine or a salt thereof, NAC or a salt thereof, and the S-amino acid entity is 12:6:3:9:12:2.7:20.

631. The composition of any of embodiments 620-630, wherein the ratio of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination to the R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine or a salt thereof, and NAC or a salt thereof is 12+/−15%:6+/−15%:3+/−15%:9+/−15%:12+/−15%:2.7+/−15%.

632. The composition of any of embodiments 620-631, wherein the ratio of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination to the R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine or a salt thereof, NAC or a salt thereof, and the S-amino acid entity is 12+/−15%:6+/−15%:3+/−15%:9+/−15%:12+/−15%:2.7+/−15%:18+/−15%.

633. The composition of any of embodiments 620-632, wherein the ratio of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination to the R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine or a salt thereof, NAC or a salt thereof, the S-amino acid entity, and the L-glycine is 12:6:3:9:12:2.7:9:9. In certain embodiments, the ratio of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination to the R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine or a salt thereof, NAC or a salt thereof, the S-amino acid entity, and the L-glycine is 12:6:3:9:12:2.7:10:10.

634. The composition of any of embodiments 620-633, wherein the ratio of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination to the R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine or a salt thereof, NAC or a salt thereof, the S-amino acid entity, and the L-glycine is 12+/−15%:6+/−15%:3+/−15%:9+/−15%:12+/−15%:2.7+/−15%:9+/−15%:9+/−15%. In certain embodiments, the ratio of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination to the R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine or a salt thereof, NAC or a salt thereof, the S-amino acid entity, and the L-glycine is 12+/−15%:6+/−15%:3+/−15%:9+/−15%:12+/−15%:2.7+/−15%:10+/−15%:10+/−15%.

635. A pharmaceutical composition comprising the composition of any of the preceding embodiments.

636. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the L-amino acid entity is chosen from the group consisting of L-leucine, β-hydroxy-β-methybutyrate (HMB), oxo-leucine, isovaleryl-CoA, D-leucine, and n-acetyl-leucine, or a combination thereof.

637. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the R-amino acid entity is chosen from the group consisting of L-arginine, ornithine, argininosuccinate, citrulline, aspartate, glutamate, agmatine, creatine, D-arginine, and N-acetyl-arginine, or a combination thereof.

638. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the Q-amino acid entity is chosen from the group consisting of L-glutamine, glutamate, carbamoyl-P, glutamate, D-glutamine, and n-acetylglutamine, or a combination thereof.

639. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the NAC-amino acid entity is chosen from the group consisting of NAC, serine, acetylserine, cystathionine, glutathione, homocysteine, methionine, D-cysteine, L-cysteine, cysteamine, and cystine, or a combination thereof.

640. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the S-amino acid entity is chosen from the group consisting of L-serine, phosphoserine, P-hydroxypyruvate, L-glycine, tryptophan, acetylserine, cystathionine, and phosphatidylserine.

641. A dietary composition comprising the composition of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the dietary compositions is chosen from a medical food, a functional food, or a supplement.

642. A method of providing amino acid entities to a subject comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of the composition of any of the preceding embodiments.

643. A method of manufacturing or making a composition comprising forming a composition comprising the following:

a) a L-amino acid entity,

b) an R-amino acid entity,

c) a Q-amino acid entity;

d) a NAC entity, e.g., NAC; and optionally, e) an S-amino acid entity;

provided that:

f) at least one amino acid entity is not provided as a peptide of more than 20 amino acid residues in length, wherein:

(i) the amino acid entity of (a) is selected from Table 2; and

(ii) one or both of the R-amino acid entity and the Q-amino acid entity are present at a higher amount (wt. %) than the L-amino acid entity.

644. The method of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein:

1) the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the I-amino acid entity is at least 1.5:1, or at least 1.75:1, and not more than 2.5:1 or not more than 3:1, e.g., the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the I-amino acid entity is about 2:1;

2) the ratio of L-amino acid entity to V-amino acid entity is at least 2:1, at least 3:1, at least 3.5:1, at least 4:1, or at least 5:1, and not more than 6:1, e.g., the ratio of L-amino acid entity to V-amino acid entity is about 4:1;

3) the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the R-amino acid entity is at least 1:1, at least 3.5:3, at least 4:3, or at least 2:1, and not more than 5:2, e.g., the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the R-amino acid entity is about 4:3;

4) the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or a salt thereof is at least 0.5:1, or at least 0.75:1, and not more than 1.5 to 1 or not more than 2:1, e.g., the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or salt thereof is about 1:1;

5) the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the NAC entity or a salt thereof is at least 2:1, at least 3:1, at least 3.5:1, or at least 4:1, and not more than 5 to 1 or not more than 6:1, e.g., the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the NAC entity or salt thereof is about 4:1 (e.g., 4:0.9);

6) optionally wherein the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity or a salt thereof is greater than 1:3, greater than 1.5:3, about 2:3, or about 3:5, and not more than 2.5:3 or 1:1, e.g., the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity is about 2:3, or the ratio of the L-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity is about 3:5; or

7) a combination of two, three, four, five, or six of (1)-(6).

645. The method of embodiment 644, wherein:

8) the ratio of I-amino acid entity to V-amino acid entity is at least 1:1, at least 1.5:1, or about 2:1, and not more than 2.5:1 or not more than 3:1, e.g., the ratio of I-amino acid entity to V-amino acid entity is about 2:1;

9) the ratio of the I-amino acid entity to the R-amino acid entity is greater than 1:3, greater than 1.5:3, or about 2:3, and not more than 2.5:3 or not more than 1:1, e.g., the ratio of the I-amino acid entity to the R-amino acid entity is about 2:3;

10) the ratio of the I-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or a salt thereof is at least 1:4, at least 1:3, or about 1:2, and not more than 1:1 or not more than 2:1, e.g., the ratio of the I-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or salt thereof is about 1:2;

11) the ratio of the I-amino acid entity to the NAC entity or a salt thereof is at least 1:1, at least 1.5:1, or about 2:1, and not more than 2.5:1 or not more than 3:1, e.g., the ratio of the I-amino acid entity to the NAC entity or salt thereof is about 2:1 (e.g., 2:0.9);

12) optionally wherein the ratio of the I-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity or a salt thereof is greater than 1:4, greater than 1.5:4, about 1:3, or about 3:10, and not more than 1.5:3 or 2:3, e.g., the ratio of the I-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity is about 1:3, or the ratio of the I-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity is about 3:10; or

13) a combination of two, three, four, or five of (8)-(12).

646. The method of embodiment 644 or 645, wherein:

14) the ratio of the V-amino acid entity to the R-amino acid entity is greater than 1:4, greater than 1.5:4, or about 1:3, and not more than 1:2 or not more than 1:1, e.g., the ratio of the V-amino acid entity to the R-amino acid entity is about 1:3;

15) the ratio of the V-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or a salt thereof is greater than 1:5, or greater than 1.5:5, about 1:4, and not more than 1.5:4 or not more than 1:3, e.g., the ratio of the V-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or salt thereof is about 1:4;

16) the ratio of the V-amino acid entity to the NAC entity or a salt thereof is at least 1:2, at least 1.5:2, or about 1:1, and not more than 1.5:1 or not more than 2:1, e.g., the ratio of the V-amino acid entity to the NAC entity or salt thereof is about 1:1 (e.g., 1:0.9);

17) optionally wherein the ratio of the V-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity or a salt thereof is greater than 1:8, greater than 1:7, about 1:6, or about 3:20, and not more than 1.5:6 or 1:3, e.g., the ratio of the V-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity is about 1:6, or the ratio of the V-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity is about 3:20; or

18) a combination of two, three, or four of (14)-(17).

647. The method of any of embodiments 644-646, wherein:

19) the ratio of the R-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or a salt thereof is greater than 1:2, greater than 1.25:2, or about 3:4, and not more than 3.5:4 or not more than 1:1, e.g., the ratio of the R-amino acid entity to the L-glutamine or salt thereof is about 3:4;

20) the ratio of the R-amino acid entity to the NAC entity or a salt thereof is at least 4:1, at least 4:1.5, or about 3:1, and not more than 3:1.5 or not more than 3:2, e.g., the ratio of the R-amino acid entity to the NAC entity or salt thereof is about 3:1 (e.g., 3:0.9);

21) optionally wherein the ratio of the R-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity or a salt thereof is greater than 1:4, greater than 1:3, about 1:2, or about 9:20, and not more than 1.5:2 or 1:1, e.g., the ratio of the R-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity is about 1:2, or the ratio of the R-amino acid entity to the S-amino acid entity is about 9:20; or

22) a combination of two or three of (19)-(21).

648. The method of any of embodiments 644-647, wherein:

23) the ratio of the L-glutamine to the NAC entity or a salt thereof is at least 5:1, at least 5:1.5, or about 4:1, and not more than 4:1.5 or not more than 3:1, e.g., the ratio of the L-glutamine to the NAC entity or salt thereof is about 4:1 (e.g., 4:0.9);

24) optionally wherein the ratio of the L-glutamine to the S-amino acid entity or a salt thereof is greater than 1:3, greater than 1.25:3, about 2:3, or about 3:5, and not more than 2.5:3 or 1:1, e.g., the ratio of the L-glutamine to the S-amino acid entity is about 2:3, or the ratio of the L-glutamine to the S-amino acid entity is about 3:5; or

25) a combination of (23) and (24).

649. The method of any of embodiments 644-648, wherein:

26) the ratio of the NAC entity to the S-amino acid entity or a salt thereof is greater than 1:8, greater than 1:7, or about 1:6, and not more than 1:5 or not more than 1.5:5, e.g., the ratio of the NAC entity to the S-amino acid entity is about 1:6 (e.g., 0.9:6 or 2.7:20).

650. The method of any of embodiments 644-649, wherein the composition satisfies the properties of (1)-(7) defined above.

651. The method of any of embodiments 644-650, wherein the composition satisfies the properties of at least 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or 7 of any of properties (1)-(26) defined above.

652. The method of any of embodiments 644-651, wherein the ratio of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination to the R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine or a salt thereof, and NAC or a salt thereof is 12:6:3:9:12:2.7.

653. The method of any of embodiments 644-652, wherein the ratio of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination to the R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine or a salt thereof, NAC or a salt thereof, and the S-amino acid entity is 12:6:3:9:12:2.7:18.

654. The method of any of embodiments 644-653, wherein the ratio of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination to the R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine or a salt thereof, NAC or a salt thereof, and the S-amino acid entity is 12:6:3:9:12:2.7:20.

655. The method of any of embodiments 644-654, wherein the ratio of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination to the R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine or a salt thereof, and NAC or a salt thereof is 12+/−15%:6+/−15%:3+/−15%:9+/−15%:12+/−15%:2.7+/−15%.

656. The method of any of embodiments 644-655, wherein the ratio of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination to the R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine or a salt thereof, NAC or a salt thereof, and the S-amino acid entity is 12+/−15%:6+/−15%:3+/−15%:9+/−15%:12+/−15%:2.7+/−15%:18+/−15%.

657. The method of any of embodiments 644-656, wherein the ratio of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination to the R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine or a salt thereof, NAC or a salt thereof, the S-amino acid entity, and the L-glycine is 12:6:3:9:12:2.7:9:9. In certain embodiments, the ratio of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination to the R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine or a salt thereof, NAC or a salt thereof, the S-amino acid entity, and the L-glycine is 12:6:3:9:12:2.7:10:10.

658. The method of any of embodiments 644-657, wherein the ratio of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination to the R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine or a salt thereof, NAC or a salt thereof, the S-amino acid entity, and the L-glycine is 12+/−15%:6+/−15%:3+/−15%:9+/−15%:12+/−15%:2.7+/−15%:9+/−15%:9+/−15%. In certain embodiments, the ratio of the L-amino acid-entity, the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination to the R-amino acid entity, L-glutamine or a salt thereof, NAC or a salt thereof, the S-amino acid entity, and the L-glycine is 12+/−15%:6+/−15%:3+/−15%:9+/−15%:12+/−15%:2.7+/−15%:10+/−15%:10+/−15%.

659. The composition or method of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the composition is capable of enhancing fatty acid oxidation, e.g., one or both of reducing levels of unsaturated fatty acids or increasing levels of acylcarnitine (e.g., in a STAM mouse model or a FATZO mouse model). In certain embodiments, the reduction in levels of unsaturated fatty acids is at least 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or 99% of the level of change shown in Table 53, e.g., measured as described in Example 9. In certain embodiments, the increase in levels of acylcarnitine is at least 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or 99% of the level of change shown in Table 53, e.g., measured as described in Example 9.

660. The composition or method of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the composition is capable of reducing, or reduces, liver fibrosis or liver injury by at least 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 21%, 22%, 23%, 24%, 25%, 26%, 27%, 28%, 29%, or 30%, as detected using an assay of alanine transaminase (ALT), e.g., an antibody-based detection assay, e.g., an ELISA, e.g., as described in Example 4, e.g., relative to a reference composition (e.g., a vehicle control).

661. The composition or method of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the composition is capable of reducing, or reduces, liver fibrosis or liver injury by at least 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 21%, 22%, 23%, 24%, 25%, 26%, 27%, 28%, 29%, or 30%, as detected using an assay of aspartate transaminase (AST), e.g., an antibody-based detection assay, e.g., an ELISA, e.g., as described in Example 4, e.g., relative to a reference composition (e.g., a vehicle control).

662. The composition or method of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the composition is capable of reducing, or reduces, alanine transaminase (ALT) by at least 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 21%, 22%, 23%, 24%, 25%, 26%, 27%, 28%, 29%, or 30%, as detected using an assay of ALT, e.g., an antibody-based detection assay, e.g., an ELISA, e.g., as described in Example 4, e.g., relative to a reference composition (e.g., a vehicle control).

663. The composition or method of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the composition is capable of reducing, or reduces, aspartate transaminase (AST) by at least 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 21%, 22%, 23%, 24%, 25%, 26%, 27%, 28%, 29%, or 30%, as detected using an assay of AST, e.g., an antibody-based detection assay, e.g., an ELISA, e.g., as described in Example 4, e.g., relative to a reference composition (e.g., a vehicle control).

664. The composition or method of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the composition is capable of reducing, or reduces, liver fibrosis or liver injury by at least 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 21%, 22%, 23%, 24%, 25%, 26%, 27%, 28%, 29%, or 30%, as detected using an assay of hydroxyproline, e.g., an antibody-based detection assay, e.g., an ELISA, e.g., as described in Example 4, e.g., relative to a reference composition (e.g., a vehicle control).

665. The composition or method of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the composition is capable of reducing, or reduces, hydroxyproline levels by at least 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 21%, 22%, 23%, 24%, 25%, 26%, 27%, 28%, 29%, or 30%, as detected using an assay of hydroxyproline, e.g., an antibody-based detection assay, e.g., an ELISA, e.g., as described in Example 4, e.g., relative to a reference composition (e.g., a vehicle control).

666. The composition or method of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the composition is capable of reducing, or reduces, liver fibrosis or liver injury by at least 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, or 90% as detected using LX-2 cells, e.g., levels of Col1a1, Acta2, and/or TIMP2 in LX-2 cells, e.g., as assessed using a nucleic acid amplification method, e.g., PCR or qRT-PCR, e.g., as described in Example 7, e.g., relative to a reference composition (e.g., a vehicle control; an amino acid composition comprising L-leucine, L-isoleucine, L-valine; NAC; or an amino acid composition comprising L-arginine, L-glutamine, and NAC).

667. The composition or method of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the composition is capable of reducing, or reduces, expression of one or more collagen biomarkers (e.g., Col1a1, Acta2, and/or TIMP2) by at least 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, or 90% as detected using LX-2 cells, e.g., levels of Col1a1, Acta2, and/or TIMP2 in LX-2 cells, e.g., as assessed using a nucleic acid amplification method, e.g., PCR or qRT-PCR, e.g., as described in Example 7, e.g., relative to a reference composition (e.g., a vehicle control; an amino acid composition comprising L-leucine, L-isoleucine, L-valine; an amino acid composition comprising L-arginine, L-glutamine, and NAC; or NAC).

668. The composition or method of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the composition is capable of reducing, or reduces, expression of one or more collagen biomarkers (e.g., Col1a1) by at least 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, or 90% as detected using primary hepatic stellate cells, e.g., levels of Col1a1 in primary hepatic stellate cells, e.g., as assessed using an antibody-based detection assay, e.g., an ELISA, e.g., as described in Example 12, e.g., relative to a reference composition (e.g., a vehicle control; an amino acid composition comprising L-leucine, L-isoleucine, L-valine; an amino acid composition comprising L-arginine, L-glutamine, and NAC; an amino acid composition comprising L-leucine, L-isoleucine, L-valine, L-arginine, and L-glutamine; valine; glutamine; arginine; isoleucine; leucine; or NAC).

669. The composition or method of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the composition is capable of increasing, or increases, expression of one or more collagen biomarkers (e.g., procollagen 1α1) by at least 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, or 90% as detected using primary hepatic stellate cells, e.g., levels of procollagen 1α1 in primary hepatic stellate cells, e.g., as assessed using an antibody-based detection assay, e.g., an ELISA, e.g., as described in Example 12, e.g., relative to a reference composition (e.g., a vehicle control; an amino acid composition comprising L-leucine, L-isoleucine, L-valine; an amino acid composition comprising L-arginine, L-glutamine, and NAC; an amino acid composition comprising L-leucine, L-isoleucine, L-valine, L-arginine, and L-glutamine; valine; glutamine; arginine; isoleucine; leucine; or NAC).

670. The composition or method of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the composition is capable of reducing, or reduces, hepatocyte inflammation by at least 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, or 90% as detected using HepG2 cells, e.g., decreased activity, e.g., decreased TNFα-induced activity of NF-kB in a reporter assay in HepG2 cells, as described in Example 8, e.g., relative to a reference composition (e.g., a vehicle control; an amino acid composition comprising L-leucine, L-isoleucine, L-valine; an amino acid composition comprising L-arginine, L-glutamine, and NAC; an amino acid composition comprising L-leucine, L-isoleucine, L-valine, L-arginine, and L-glutamine; or NAC).

671. The composition or method of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the composition is capable of reducing, or reduces, TNFα-induced activity of NF-kB in HepG2 cells by at least 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, or 90% as detected using HepG2 cells, e.g., decreased activity, e.g., decreased TNFα-induced activity of NF-kB in a reporter assay in HepG2 cells, as described in Example 8, e.g., relative to a reference composition (e.g., a vehicle control; an amino acid composition comprising L-leucine, L-isoleucine, L-valine; an amino acid composition comprising L-arginine, L-glutamine, and NAC; an amino acid composition comprising L-leucine, L-isoleucine, L-valine, L-arginine, and L-glutamine; or NAC).

672. The composition or method of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the composition is capable of increasing, or increases, glucose tolerance, e.g., in a STAM mouse model or in a FATZO mouse model, by at least 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, or 10%, as detected using an assay of glucose levels, e.g., using glucose oxidase, e.g., using a glucometer, e.g., as described in Example 5, e.g., relative to a reference composition (e.g., a vehicle control or a positive control, e.g., metformin).

673. The composition or method of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the composition is capable of increasing, or increases, blood glucose metabolism, e.g., in a STAM mouse model or in a FATZO mouse model, by at least 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, or 10%, as detected using an assay of glucose levels, e.g., using glucose oxidase, e.g., using a glucometer, e.g., as described in Example 5, e.g., relative to a reference composition (e.g., a vehicle control or a positive control, e.g., metformin).

674. The composition or method of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the composition is capable of decreasing, or decreases, steatosis and/or inflammation by at least 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, or 10%, as detected using an assay of MCP1/CCL2, e.g., in primary hepatocytes, e.g., using an antibody-based detection assay, e.g., an ELISA, e.g., as described in Example 10, e.g., relative to a reference composition (e.g., a vehicle control; an amino acid composition comprising L-leucine, L-isoleucine, L-valine; an amino acid composition comprising L-arginine, L-glutamine, and NAC; an amino acid composition comprising L-leucine, L-isoleucine, L-valine, L-arginine, and L-glutamine; valine; glutamine; arginine; isoleucine; leucine; or NAC).

675. The composition or method of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the composition is capable of decreasing, or decreases, MCP1/CCL2 levels by at least 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, or 10%, as detected using an assay of MCP1/CCL2, e.g., in primary hepatocytes, e.g., using an antibody-based detection assay, e.g., an ELISA, e.g., as described in Example 10, e.g., relative to a reference composition (e.g., a vehicle control; an amino acid composition comprising L-leucine, L-isoleucine, L-valine; an amino acid composition comprising L-arginine, L-glutamine, and NAC; an amino acid composition comprising L-leucine, L-isoleucine, L-valine, L-arginine, and L-glutamine; valine; glutamine; arginine; isoleucine; leucine; or NAC).

676. The composition or method of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the composition is capable of decreasing, or decreases, TNFα inflammatory response by at least 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, or 10%, as detected using an assay of MCP1/CCL2 or an assay of IL-6, e.g., in primary hepatic stellate cells, e.g., using an antibody-based detection assay, e.g., an ELISA, e.g., as described in Example 11, e.g., relative to a reference composition (e.g., a vehicle control; an amino acid composition comprising L-leucine, L-isoleucine, L-valine; an amino acid composition comprising L-arginine, L-glutamine, and NAC; an amino acid composition comprising L-leucine, L-isoleucine, L-valine, L-arginine, and L-glutamine; valine; glutamine; arginine; isoleucine; leucine; or NAC).

677. The composition or method of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the composition is capable of decreasing, or decreases, MCP1/CCL2 levels and/or IL-6 levels by at least 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, or 10%, as detected using an assay of MCP1/CCL2 or an assay of IL-6, e.g., in primary hepatic stellate cells, e.g., using an antibody-based detection assay, e.g., an ELISA, e.g., as described in Example 11, e.g., relative to a reference composition (e.g., a vehicle control; an amino acid composition comprising L-leucine, L-isoleucine, L-valine; an amino acid composition comprising L-arginine, L-glutamine, and NAC; an amino acid composition comprising L-leucine, L-isoleucine, L-valine, L-arginine, and L-glutamine; valine; glutamine; arginine; isoleucine; leucine; or NAC).

678. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments for use as a medicament.

679. The composition of any of the preceding embodiments for use in a method as disclosed herein.

680. The use of a composition of any of the preceding embodiments in the manufacture of a medicament.

681. The use of a composition of any of the preceding embodiments in the manufacture of a medicament for treating any of the disorders or conditions disclosed herein.

Although many of the above embodiments are shown in dependent form, it is contemplated that any of the embodiments or combinations thereof may be in independent form.

EXAMPLES

The Example below is set forth to aid in the understanding of the inventions, but is not intended to, and should not be construed to, limit its scope in any way.

Example 1: Method of Producing the Amino Acid Compositions

The amino acid compositions of the instant disclosure and formulations thereof may be made according to methods known in the art. They may also be made by the methods described below.

The starting materials (individual amino acids and excipients) are blended and sieved to generate a powder blend, which is filled into stick packs. The contents of the stick packs are dispersed in water at time of use for oral administration. An example of the mixing and reconstitution protocols, and stick pack formulations made thereby, are provided below.

Mixing Protocol

-   -   1. Ingredients were weighed into a container.     -   2. The container was sealed and placed in a Turbula mixer and         contents mixed on low setting for 2 minutes.     -   3. The blended powder was sieved using a No. 14 screen and any         clumps not passing through the sieve were broken apart.     -   4. The blended and sieved powder was transferred back to the         container and mixed in a Turbula mixer on low for 10 minutes.

TABLE 13 Stick pack formulations Formulation of Formulation of Amino Acid Amino Acid Placebo Composition A-1 Composition A-2 Ingredient Amount per stick pack (g) FUSI-BCAA ™ 0.00 2.00 2.00 Instantized Blend (2:1:1 L:I:V) (contains L-Leucine) N/A (1.00) (1.00) (contains L-Isoleucine) N/A (0.50) (0.50) (contains L-Valine) N/A (0.50) (0.50) L-Arginine HCl 0.00 1.50 1.81 L-Glutamine 0.00 2.00 2.00 N-Acetylcysteine 0.00 0.25 0.15 Citric Acid 0.98 0.67 0.67 Lecithin (Alcolec F100) 0.59 0.83 0.83 Acesulfame Potassium 0.04 0.05 0.05 Sucralose micronized NF 0.02 0.03 0.03 Xanthan Gum 0.24 0.24 0.24 (Ticaxan Rapid-3) Vanilla Custard #4306 0.06 0.06 0.06 Maltrin QD M500 5.75 0.00 0.00 maltodextrin NF Nat Orange WONF 0.36 0.36 0.36 #1326 Lime 865.0032U 0.05 0.05 0.05 Lemon 862.2169U 0.05 0.05 0.05 Bitterness Masking 0.12 0.12 0.12 936.2160U FD&C Yellow 6 0.01 0.01 0.01 FD&C Red 40 (1:100 0.0667 0.00 0.0000 in M500) Total (g) 8.33 8.22 8.42

Reconstitution Protocol

Stick pack formulations were reconstituted according to the following protocol:

-   -   1. A total (g) “amount per stick pack” of powder blend was         weighed.     -   2. About 118.3 g (4 oz) of cold filtered water was weighed into         a sealable container.     -   3. The “amount per stick pack” of the powder blend was         transferred to the sealable container and the container was         sealed.     -   4. The container was shaken vigorously for 20 to 30 seconds.

Example 2: Analytical Characterization of the Amino Acid Compositions

Described below are methods used to characterize some of the physicochemical properties in formulations of the amino acid compositions prepared according to Example 1.

Identification and Assay. The identification and assay of % label claim of each amino acid present in Formulations of Amino Acid Composition A-1 and Amino Acid Composition A-2 was evaluated by reversed phase HPLC.

Amino Acid Analysis

Briefly, an amino acid analysis method using reversed-phase high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) was developed to measure free amino acid content (except for N-acetylcysteine) in formulations of amino acid compositions described herein following resuspension. Column and chromatographic conditions were modified from Agilent Technical Note: “Automated Amino Acid Analysis Using an Agilent Poroshell HPH-C18 Column (Agilent Application Note 5991-5571EN)”. Primary amino acids in the sample are derivatized online using the Agilent 1260 or 1290 UPLC well-plate autosampler using o-phthaldialdehyde (OPA). Separation is achieved using an Agilent ZORBAX Eclipse Plus column (4.6 mm ID×100 mm, 3.5 μm). The OPA-derivatives of primary amino acids are detected using fluorescence (FLD) at 340 nm emission/450 nm excitation wavelengths and UV detection at 338 nm. Individual amino acids are expected to elute according to known representative chromatograms of amino acid standards. Concentrations of amino acids in samples are determined by fitting a sample peak area to a standard curve. Alternatively, amino acid analysis may be performed using derivatization with AccQ-Tag chemistry and standards (Waters).

Amino Acid Analysis: N-Acetylcysteine

For N-acetylcysteine (NAC), an HPLC test method was developed based on the United States Pharmacopeia Monograph Chapter 39 (USP <39>) for “Acetylcysteine” to determine the content of N-acetylcysteine of reconstituted powder of formulations described herein. This HPLC method involves the use of a reversed-phase column without any derivatization step. The separation was done using a column of C-18 backbone as the stationary phase, and 0.05 M KH₂PO₄ as the mobile phase. UV detection was performed at 214 nm. The column was then flushed with 5% acetonitrile to remove any residual sample components at the end of each injection. At the end of the sequence, a low flow “system flush” procedure involving stronger organic solvents is used to preserve the column for storage. N-Acetylcysteine is expected to elute according to known representative chromatograms of standards. Concentrations of N-acetylcysteine in samples are determined by fitting a sample peak area to a standard curve.

Results for Formulation of Amino Acid Composition A-1 (compared to theoretical g per serving) are shown in Table 14. For glutamine, a mean mass per serving of 1.84 g was observed; compared to 2.00 g theoretical per serving, this gives a % agreement (or % label claim value) of 92%. For arginine, a mean mass per serving of 1.69 g was observed; compared to 1.50 g theoretical per serving, this gives a % agreement (or % label claim value) of 113%. For valine, a mean mass per serving of 0.51 g was observed; compared to 0.50 g theoretical per serving, this gives a % agreement (or % label claim value) of 101%. For isoleucine, a mean mass per serving of 0.52 g was observed; compared to 0.50 g theoretical per serving, this gives a % agreement (or % label claim value) of 104%. For leucine, a mean mass per serving of 1.04 g was observed; compared to 1.00 g theoretical per serving, this gives a % agreement (or % label claim value) of 104%. For N-acetylcysteine (NAC), a mean mass per serving of 0.28 g was observed; compared to 0.25 g theoretical per serving, this gives a % agreement (or % label claim value) of 111%. Overall, the amino acids and amino acid derivatives in the Formulation of Amino Acid

Composition A-1 had a Range of % Label Claims of 92-113%.

TABLE 14 % Label Claim Results: Formulation of Amino Acid Composition A-1 g of Individual Amino Acid/per serving of Amino Acid Composition A-1 Sample Name GLN ARG VAL ILE LEU NAC AA Comp A-1 1.84 1.70 0.51 0.52 1.05 0.28 AA Comp A-1 1.82 1.68 0.50 0.52 1.04 0.28 AA Comp A-1 1.84 1.70 0.51 0.52 1.05 0.28 Mean 1.84 1.69 0.51 0.52 1.04 0.28 Theoretical 2.00 1.50 0.50 0.50 1.00 0.25 g/serving for each AA % Agreement 92 113 101 104 104 111 Observed/ Theoretical * 100

Results for Formulation of Amino Acid Composition A-2 (compared to theoretical g per serving) are shown in Table 15. For glutamine, a mean mass per serving of 2.102 g was observed; compared to 2.00 g theoretical per serving, this gives a % agreement (or % label claim value) of 105.1%. For arginine, a mean mass per serving of 1.922 g was observed; compared to 1.5 g theoretical per serving, this gives a % agreement (or % label claim value) of 107.5%. For valine, a mean mass per serving of 0.536 g was observed; compared to 0.50 g theoretical per serving, this gives a % agreement (or % label claim value) of 107.5%. For isoleucine, a mean mass per serving of 0.531 g was observed; compared to 0.50 g theoretical per serving, this gives a % agreement (or % label claim value) of 106.2%. For leucine, a mean mass per serving of 1.058 g was observed; compared to 1.00 g theoretical per serving, this gives a % agreement (or % label claim value) of 105.8%. For N-acetylcysteine (NAC), a mean mass per serving of 0.153 g was observed; compared to 0.15 g theoretical per serving, this gives a % agreement (or % label claim value) of 101.7%. Overall, the amino acids and amino acid derivatives in the Formulation of Amino Acid Composition A-2 had a range of mean % label claims of 101-107%. Individual samples had a range of % label claims of 98.3-108.8%.

TABLE 15 % Label Claim Results: Formulation of Amino Acid Composition A-2 g of Individual Amino Acid/per serving of Amino Acid Composition A-2 Sample Name GLN ARG VAL ILE LEU NAC AA Comp A-2 2.09 1.92 0.54 0.53 1.05 0.16 AA Comp A-2 2.10 1.90 0.53 0.53 1.06 0.15 AA Comp A-2 2.11 1.96 0.54 0.53 1.06 0.15 AA Comp A-2 2.11 1.90 0.54 0.53 1.06 0.15 Mean 2.102 1.922 0.536 0.531 1.058 0.153 Theoretical 2.00 1.50 0.50 0.50 1.00 0.15 g/serving for each AA % Agreement 105.1 106.6 107.5 106.2 105.8 101.7 Observed/ Theoretical * 100

Example 3: Pharmacokinetic Characterization of the Amino Acid Compositions

The amino acid compositions of the present disclosure were characterized in rodent and human subjects for their pharmacokinetic effects on amino acid concentrations in response to ingestion of the compositions.

Rat Pharmacokinetics

The pharmacokinetic effects of a formulation of Amino Acid Composition A-1 were tested in rats. After an overnight fast, rats were given the formulation by oral gavage. Portal vein and jugular vein blood was collected just before the dose, and at 5, 15, 30, 60, 120, 240 and 360 minutes thereafter. Plasma concentration of amino acid levels were measured, and maximum concentration (C_(max)), time of maximum concentration (T_(max)), and half-life (T_(1/2)) were determined. Maximum concentration values are corrected for baseline endogenous amino acid levels. Results for rat PK studies are shown below in Tables 16-21.

TABLE 16 Leucine Rat PK - Formulation of Amino Acid Composition A-1 Dose C_(max) T_(max) T_(1/2) (mg/kg) (μM) (h) (h) 266 421 1.0 1.2

TABLE 17 Isoleucine Rat PK - Formulation of Amino Acid Composition A-1 Dose C_(max) T_(max) T_(1/2) (mg/kg) (μM) (h) (h) 133 176 0.6 1.0

TABLE 18 Valine Rat PK - Formulation of Amino Acid Composition A-1 Dose C_(max) T_(max) T_(1/2) (mg/kg) (μM) (h) (h) 133 323 0.9 1.5

TABLE 19 Arginine Rat PK - Formulation of Amino Acid Composition A-1 Dose C_(max) T_(max) T_(1/2) (mg/kg) (μM) (h) (h) 399 896 1.0 1.1

TABLE 20 Glutamine Rat PK - Formulation of Amino Acid Composition A-1 Dose C_(max) T_(max) T_(1/2) (mg/kg) (μM) (h) (h) 531 300 1.8 4.1

TABLE 21 N-acetylcysteine Rat PK - Formulation of Amino Acid Composition A-1 Dose C_(max) T_(max) T_(1/2) (mg/kg) (μM) (h) (h) 66 34 0.9 0.8

Allometric scaling was assumed to convert rat mg/kg doses into human equivalent mg/kg doses. A comparison of these equivalent mg/kg doses and human gram doses gram (assuming bodyweight of 70 kg) is shown in Table 22.

TABLE 22 Amino Acid Doses: Comparison of Rat and Human Dose Leu Ile Val Arg Gln NAC Rat (mg/kg) 266 133 133 399 531 66 Human (mg/kg) 43 21 21 64 86 11 Human (g) 3 1.5 1.5 4.5 6 0.75

Human Pharmacokinetics

The impacts of orally administered Formulation of Amino Acid Composition A-1 prepared according to Example 1 on amino acid pharmacokinetics was evaluated in six apparently healthy human subjects between the ages of 18 and 40. Changes in plasma concentrations of amino acids in response to ingestion of the Formulation of Amino Acid Composition A-1 at two doses (High: 3 stick packs, ˜18 g of amino acids; vs. Low: 1 stick pack, ˜6 g of amino acids) were determined. Blood samples (3 mL) were collected after an initial baseline and in specific intervals thereafter [i.e., 0 (pre-administration), 15, 30, 60, 90, 120, 150, 180, 210, and 240 minutes]. Plasma concentration of amino acid levels were measured, and maximum concentration (C_(max)), time of maximum concentration (T_(max)), half-life (T_(1/2)) and total exposure (area under curve for plasma concentration time-courses of leucine, isoleucine, valine, arginine and glutamine) were determined. Maximum concentration and total exposure values are corrected for baseline endogenous amino acid levels. These results are shown in Table 23-27.

TABLE 23 Leucine Human PK - Formulation of Amino Acid Composition A-1 Dose C_(max) T_(max) T_(1/2) AUC_(last) Dose (g) (μM) (h) (h) (μM-h) HIGH 3.0 294 0.8 1.1 471 LOW 1.0 117 0.8 1.3 153

TABLE 24 Isoleucine Human PK - Formulation of Amino Acid Composition A-1 Dose C_(max) T_(max) T_(1/2) AUC_(last) Dose (g) (μM) (h) (h) (μM-h) HIGH 1.5 141 0.7 0.8 194 LOW 0.5 52 0.8 0.6 54

TABLE 25 Valine Human PK - Formulation of Amino Acid Composition A-1 Dose C_(max) T_(max) T_(1/2) AUC_(last) Dose (g) (μM) (h) (h) (μM-h) HIGH 1.5 238 0.8 1.3 400 LOW 0.5 89 0.8 1.7 101

TABLE 26 Arginine Human PK - Formulation of Amino Acid Composition A-1 Dose C_(max) T_(max) T_(1/2) AUC_(last) Dose (g) (μM) (h) (h) (μM-h) HIGH 4.5 177 0.8 1.6 311 LOW 1.5 69 0.8 1.3 111

TABLE 27 Glutamine Human PK - Formulation of Amino Acid Composition A-1 Dose C_(max) T_(max) T_(1/2) AUC_(last) Dose (g) (μM) (h) (h) (μM-h) HIGH 6.0 190 0.9 2.9 332 LOW 2.0 103 1.1 3.0 186

Example 4: Therapeutic Amino Acid Composition A-1 Treatment Improves Liver Fibrosis in an Animal Model of Chemically Induced Fibrosis

Amino Acid Composition A-1 was tested for its ability to affect liver fibrosis in a model of chemically induced liver fibrosis. A commonly used model of experimental hepatic fibrosis is induced chemically in mice using carbon tetrachloride; CCl₄ (Gideon Smith, Animal Models of Cutaneous and Hepatic Fibrosis; Progress in Molecular Biology and Translational Science, Vol. 105, pp. 371-408). CCl₄ causes inflammation, hepatocyte damage, necrosis and fibrosis after 4 weeks of treatment and cirrhosis after 8 weeks. Liver fibrosis induced in mice by carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄) resembles important properties of human liver fibrosis including inflammation, regeneration and fiber formation.

Animals

Male BALB/c mice 7 to 8 weeks of age were used for this study. Animals were housed four per cage, kept on a standard 12 hr light cycle and given free access to water and standard mouse chow. Food and water were available ad libitum.

Procedure

Animals were dosed with 5% CCl₄ or vehicle intraperitoneally (IP) typically 3 days a week for 4 weeks. CCl4 was formulated weekly. 10 ml/kg of Amino Acid Composition A-1 at 23 mg/ml, 76 mg/ml or 153 mg/ml was dosed by oral gavage twice daily. Animals were weighed twice weekly and blood was collected via retro-orbital sinus once per week for serum. After four weeks, blood was collected for serum isolation and mice were euthanized via cervical dislocation. Two lobes of liver were removed—the left lobe was placed in a tube containing 10% formalin for histopathology, while the right lobe was weighed and placed in a beadbeater tube containing 2.3 mm zirconia beads and 2× volume of 1:100 protease inhibitor (Sigma Aldrich, #P8340). Tissue samples were homogenized for 2 minutes in a beadbeater machine and immediately spun down at 3,000 rpm for 15 minutes at 4° C. Serum was analyzed for ALT/AST levels at weeks 2 and 4. Homogenized liver samples were further evaluated for Hydroxyproline (Hyp) content to identify formation of liver fibrosis.

Hydroxyproline (Week 4)

Hydroxyproline (4-hydroxyproline, Hyp) is a common nonproteinogenic amino acid and is used as an indirect measure of the amount of collagen present, indicative of fibrosis. Hepatic Hyp content levels in CCl₄-treated animals were significantly higher than vehicle treated animals. Data are mean±standard deviation (stdev); “Comp A-1”: Amino Acid Composition A-1; *p<0.05 compared to vehicle control by unpaired T test. Raw data are shown in Table 28.

TABLE 28 Hepatic Hyp content level results Hydroxyproline Vehicle/ Vehicle/ Comp A-1, Comp A-1, Comp A-1, Sham CCL4 23 mg/ml 76 mg/ml 153 mg/ml mean 0.160 0.263* 0.280 0.228 0.201 stdev 0.067 0.107 0.104 0.124 0.057

AST Levels and ALT Levels

Aspartate transaminase (AST) and alanine transaminase (ALT) are commonly measured clinical biomarkers of liver health. Both AST and ALT levels were significantly elevated in CCl₄ administered animals for the entire duration of the study, suggesting that liver damage has occurred. Data are mean±standard deviation (stdev); “Comp A-1”: Amino Acid Composition A-1; p values are compared to vehicle/CCl4 control; by one-tailed T test; n.s. not significant. Raw data are shown in Tables 29 and 30.

TABLE 29 ALT level results Liver ALT Vehicle/ Vehicle/ Comp A-1, Comp A-1, Comp A-1, Sham CCL4 23 mg/ml 76 mg/ml 153 mg/ml mean 1608.4 4153.4 3694.9 3023.4 2992.7 stdev 1099.5 1427.4 2106.4 1343.8 1674.2 n.s. p < 0.05 p = 0.0371

TABLE 30 AST level results Liver AST Vehicle/ Vehicle/ Comp A-1, Comp A-1, Comp A-1, Sham CCL4 23 mg/ml 76 mg/ml 153 mg/ml mean 155.8 933.6 879.2 554.7 680.4 stdev 69.7 237.0 527.3 336.6 431.2 n.s. p < 0.01 p = 0.0394

Summary

Treatment with Amino Acid Composition A-1 resulted in reduction of chemically-induced fibrosis as indicated by reduced levels of hydroxyproline, a marker for collagen production, and in improvement of clinical biomarkers of liver damage as indicated by reduction in levels of liver enzymes ALT and AST (Tables 31-33).

TABLE 31 Hepatic Hyp content level results: raw data Hydroxyproline Vehicle/ Vehicle/ Comp A-1, Comp A-1, Comp A-1, Sham CCL4 23 mg/ml 76 mg/ml 153 mg/ml 0.122 0.241 0.246154 0.190323 0.248649 0.277 0.318 0.529578 0.174684 0.24 0.152 0.298 0.234783 0.226549 0.18 0.108 0.493 0.216393 0.169128 0.174233 0.123 0.2 0.294737 0.175887 0.133333 0.108 0.196 0.22439 0.107692 0.135758 0.232 0.183 0.305512 0.212389 0.210219 0.177 0.393064 0.316191 0.150265 0.272897 0.612174 0.231293 0.192683 0.18018 0.308824 0.164341 0.218803 0.203279 0.17971

TABLE 32 ALT level results: raw data Liver ALT Vehicle/ Vehicle/ Comp A-1, Comp A-1, Comp A-1, Sham CCL4 23 mg/ml 76 mg/ml 153 mg/ml 685.0737 4963.448 1299.647 4325.237 2611.524 2623.343 578.7053 5069.816 4325.237 2150.594 1606.933 5235.278 5566.202 2304.237 1866.945 3805.214 2115.138 5188.003 1051.454 696.8924 779.6234 4384.331 3828.851 1488.746 1725.121 637.7988 4207.05 330.5123 4313.419 3722.483 1417.834 5471.652 649.6176 4112.501 5211.641 1311.466 5105.273 1441.471 2859.717 4797.986 3462.471 5495.29 2564.249 1216.916 4147.957 4892.536 5318.009 1796.033 5436.196 5329.828 2836.079 5069.816 3852.489 5247.097 2457.881 5046.179 5034.36 1346.922

TABLE 33 AST level results: raw data Liver AST Vehicle/ Vehicle/ Comp A-1, Comp A-1, Comp A-1, Sham CCL4 23 mg/ml 76 mg/ml 153 mg/ml 95.37346 908.3081 315.7015 703.1751 508.1721 57.38585 1050.129 928.5682 720.9027 335.9616 239.7263 877.918 1389.484 371.4167 379.0142 194.1412 660.1224 1047.596 262.5189 211.8688 123.231 599.3423 589.2123 267.5839 510.7046 102.971 675.3175 181.4787 819.6704 885.5156 237.1938 1470.525 285.3115 629.7324 1214.742 196.6737 1070.389 305.5715 414.4693 941.2307 733.5651 1690.853 505.6396 252.3889 976.6858 1100.779 1485.72 297.974 1088.116 1232.469 356.2217 1437.602 918.4382 1483.187 406.8718 1189.416 1108.376 267.5839

Example 5: Therapeutic Treatment with Amino Acid Composition A-1 Improves Oral Glucose Tolerance in a Pre-Clinical Animal Model

Amino Acid Composition A-1 and metformin were tested for their ability to affect glucose tolerance in a genetically obese B6.Cg-Lep^(ob)/J (ob/ob) mouse model (Maida A, et al., 2010, PMID: 20972533).

Model Description

B6.Cg-Lep^(ob)/J (ob/ob) mice harbor a spontaneous mutation of leptin (Lep) gene. ob/ob mice exhibit hyperphagia, obesity, and metabolic syndrome/T2DM-like symptoms, e.g. hyperglycemia, hyperinsulinemia, and insulin resistance. ob/ob mice have impaired intestinal barrier function, gut microbial translocation, and an inflammatory, fibrogenic phenotype of hepatic stellate cells (Brun P et al., 2004, PMID: 17023554). ob/ob mice develop skeletal muscle hypoplasia in quadriceps femoris, similar to the effect of aging in humans (Hamrick M W et al., 2004, PMID: 15003785). ob/ob mice exhibit intolerance to glucose and insulin. Metformin lowers plasma glucose (Cool B, et al., Cell Metab 2006, PMID: 16753576), liver triglyceride, and reverses NAFLD in ob/ob mice (Lin H Z et al., 2000, PMID: 10973319; Cool B, et al., Cell Metab 2006, PMID: 16753576). A single dose of metformin treatment reduces blood glucose and improves glucose tolerance (OGTT) in C57/BL6.

Experimental Design

Eight-week-old male ob/ob mice were subjected to treatment of test articles (Amino Acid Composition A-1 and metformin) followed by oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) on Day 3. Mice were randomized by body weight and unfasted blood glucose on Day −1. Body weight was recorded daily in the morning before AM dosing on Day 1, Day 2, and Day 3. Test articles were dosed by oral gavage at 10 ml/kg. Dosage of a test article was calculated based on daily body weight. Treatment schedule and dose are listed in the following section (Table 34). AM doses were administered at 0700, and PM doses were administered at 1800. Oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) was performed after 6-hour fasting on Day 3.

TABLE 34 Treatment schedule Group Test article # Dosing Schedule Group Vehicle N = 5 Vehicle dosed on Day 1 and Day 2 at 0700 and 1800, and 1 Day 3 at 0700 and 30 min before OGTT for a total of 6 doses. Group Metformin N = 5 Metformin hydrochloride (450 mg/kg, QD PO at the 2 beginning of dark cycle) dosed on Day −1, Day 1, and Day 2 at 1800, and at 30 min before OGTT on Day 3 for a total of 4 doses. Group Amino Acid N = 5 Amino Acid Composition A-1 (1500 mg/kg, BID PO at 3 Composition 0700 and 1800) dosed on Day 1 and Day 2 at 0700 and 1800, A-1 and Day 3 at 0700 and 30 min before OGTT for a total of 6 doses. Group Amino Acid N = 5 Amino Acid Composition A-1 (3000 mg/kg, BID PO at 4 Composition 0700 and 1800) dosed on Day 1 and Day 2 at 0700 and 1800, A-1 and Day 3 at 0700 and 30 min before OGTT for a total of 6 doses.

Baseline Glucose and Biochemistry (Insulin, Triglyceride and Cholesterol)

Mice were fasted for 6 hours prior to OGTT test. Food was removed at 0700 hours on Day 3; water was provided during fasting. Blood samples were collected from tail snip or facial puncture at −30 min (relative to OGTT) into K₂EDTA tubes for baseline glucose and blood biochemistry (insulin, triglyceride, and cholesterol). Blood glucose was measured by a glucometer (SDI StatStrip Xpress or equivalent). Plasma was collected in K₂EDTA and saved at −80° C.

Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT)

Mice were bled for baseline glucose and plasma at −30 min. Test articles were then dosed by oral gavage at −30 min. Glucose was administered per os (P.O.) at a dosage of 2.0 g/kg body weight. Blood glucose levels were measured at 0 min immediately prior to glucose injection and then at 15, 30, 60, 120 and 240 minutes thereafter (shown as 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, and 4 hours in Table 35 below).

Results are shown in Table 35. Data are mean±standard deviation (stdev). (p values by Dunnett's multiple comparisons: **p<0.005 compared to vehicle control; ***p<0.001 compared to vehicle control; ****p<0.0005 compared to vehicle control.)

Results

TABLE 35 OGTT results: Mean Blood glucose levels (mg/dl) and standard deviations (stdev) Amino Acid Amino Acid Comp A-1, Comp A-1, Vehicle 1500 mg/kg 3000 mg/kg Metformin mean mean mean mean blood blood blood blood glucose glucose glucose glucose Timepoint level level level level (hours) (mg/dl) stdev (mg/dl) stdev (mg/dl) stdev (mg/dl) stdev −1 241.8 108.3 245.6 89.4 229.6 78.2 196.4 59.8 0 282.6 47.0 374.6 97.6 303.0 77.1 199.4 62.6 0.25 655.0 107.2 575.6 73.8 456.2** 36.6 353.6**** 73.6 0.5 640.6 92.6 555.2 84.0 513.0 47.9 390.2*** 99.5 1 378.0 111.1 386.6 27.5 316.4 86.1 317.6 116.9 2 236.6 54.8 243.5 18.4 230.0 101.1 158.2 44.0 4 197.8 53.3 214.8 56.8 179.8 81.3 109.4 29.0

Summary

Treatment with Amino Acid Composition A-1 resulted in improvement of oral glucose tolerance, as indicated by improved blood glucose clearance upon oral glucose loading. In addition, 3-day treatment with Amino Acid Composition A-1 did not alter baseline blood glucose in ob/ob mice (Table 36).

TABLE 36 OGTT results: Blood glucose levels (mg/dl) raw data Timepoint (hours) Vehicle −1 211 141 211 219 427 0 239 256 273 284 361 0.25 741 676 514 578 766 0.5 551 621 604 630 797 1 305 317 327 369 572 2 182 243 230 203 325 4 146 203 167 188 285 Timepoint (hours) Amino Acid Comp A-1, 1500 mg/kg −1 224 220 190 191 403 0 331 548 347 316 331 0.25 526 702 580 531 539 0.5 532 419 621 587 617 1 431 365 367 395 375 2 246 243 220 265 4 192 193 175 299 Timepoint (hours) Amino Acid Comp A-1, 3000 mg/kg −1 137 294 179 214 324 0 242 359 203 329 382 0.25 412 490 438 443 498 0.5 513 482 467 512 591 1 240 351 220 342 429 2 161 334 148 160 347 4 120 235 110 139 295 Timepoint (hours) Metformin −1 265 248 183 120 166 0 274 234 220 129 140 0.25 387 397 427 310 247 0.5 462 439 482 307 261 1 365 399 431 239 154 2 154 183 219 124 111 4 118 93 155 101 80

Example 6: Therapeutic Treatment of NAFLD, NASH, and HCC with Amino Acid Composition A-1 in a Pre-Clinical Animal Model

Amino Acid Composition A-1 and Obeticholic acid (6α-ethyl-chenodeoxycholic acid; “OCA”) were tested for their ability to treat NASH in the STAM™ model (Stelic Institute & Co., Tokyo, Japan; Saito K. et al., 2015 Sci Rep 5:12466). Two additional groups of normal C57BL/6 mice fed standard chow and vehicle treated STAM™ mice were included as controls. All animals receiving treatment or vehicle were treated starting at 6 weeks until 9 weeks of age. Compounds were administered via oral gavage, with a dose volume of 10 ml/kg. Amino Acid Composition A-1 was administered twice daily at a dose of 1500 mg/kg, and OCA was administered once daily at a dose of 30 mg/kg.

STAM™ Mouse Model Description

STAM™ is a model for non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), developed by SMC Laboratories, Inc. and created by the combination of chemical and dietary interventions using C57BL/6 mice (Saito K. et al., 2015 Sci Rep 5:12466). Mice are treated with a low dose of streptozotocin at birth and fed a high fat diet starting at 4 weeks. Evidence of fatty liver is present by 5 weeks, followed by NASH by 7 weeks and fibrosis by 9 weeks.

Induction of NASH

NASH was induced in 53 male mice by a single subcutaneous injection of 200m streptozotocin (STZ, Sigma-Aldrich, USA) solution 2 days after birth and feeding with high fat diet (HFD, 57 kcal % fat, Cat# HFD32, CLEA Japan, Japan) after 4 weeks of age.

Route of Drug Administration, Preparation of Dosing Solutions and Treatment Doses

Amino Acid Composition A-1, OCA and Vehicle (described below) were administered by oral route in a volume of 10 mL/kg. Amino Acid Composition A-1 was solubilized in deionized water to 150 mg/ml (10×). OCA (Advanced ChemBlocks Inc.) was resuspended in 0.5% methycellulose in water to 3 mg/ml (10×). Amino Acid Composition A-1 was administered at a dose of 1500 mg/kg twice daily (9 am and 7 pm). OCA was administered at a dose of 30 mg/kg once daily (9 am).

Histological Analyses

Liver samples from mice in Group 2 (Vehicle), 3 (Amino Acid Composition A-1) and 4 (OCA) were used for the following assays. For HE staining, sections were cut from paraffin blocks of liver tissue prefixed in Bouin's solution and stained with Lillie-Mayer's Hematoxylin (Muto Pure Chemicals Co., Ltd., Japan) and eosin solution (Wako Pure Chemical Industries). NAFLD Activity score (NAS) was calculated according to the criteria of Kleiner (Kleiner D. E. et al., Hepatology, 2005; 41:1313).

Experimental Design

Study Groups

Group 1: STZ: Ten neonatal STZ-primed mice were fed with a normal diet ad libitum without any treatment until 9 weeks of age.

Group 2: Vehicle: Ten NASH mice were orally administered vehicle (10% phosphate buffered saline, pH 7.2) in a volume of 10 mL/kg twice daily (9 am and 7 pm) from 6 to 9 weeks of age.

Group 3: Amino Acid Composition A-1: Ten NASH mice were orally administered water for irrigation supplemented with Amino Acid Composition A-1 at a dose of 1500 mg/kg twice daily (9 am and 7 pm) from 6 to 9 weeks of age.

Group 4: OCA: Ten NASH mice were orally administered 0.5% methylcellulose supplemented with OCA at a dose of 30 mg/kg once daily (9 am) from 6 to 9 weeks of age.

Group 5: Normal: Ten normal mice were fed with a normal diet ad libitum without any treatment until 9 weeks of age.

Group 6: HFD: Ten normal mice were fed with a high fat diet ad libitum without any treatment until 9 weeks of age.

Histological Analysis Results: HE Staining, NAFLD Activity Score and α-Smooth Muscle Actin Staining

Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease Activity Score Results

The non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) activity score was assessed via histological analysis and grading of H&E stained liver sections from each animal. This score is the sum of three individual scores that grade the degree of steatosis (0-3), inflammation (0-2), and hepatocyte ballooning (0-2). All tissues were graded using the scoring criteria of Kleiner et al. (Kleiner et al. Hepatology. 2005; 41(6): 1313-21). Results are shown in Table 37. Data are mean±standard deviation (stdev). Normal C57BL/6 mice fed standard chow had a mean score of 0+/−0. Vehicle treated STAM™ mice had a mean score of 4.7+/−0.67. Amino Acid Composition A-1 treated mice had a mean score of 3.1+/−0.74. OCA treated mice had a mean score of 2.9+/−0.74. Both Amino Acid Composition A-1 and OCA were statistically different from vehicle for NAFLD Activity Score when compared using Dunnett's multiple comparisons test (Amino Acid Composition A-1 p=0.0001, OCA p=0.0001).

Similarly, Amino Acid Composition A-1 treated mice showed a mean ballooning score of 0.4+/−0.52, compared to a mean ballooning score for vehicle treated STAM™ mice of 1.6+/−0.52, and a mean ballooning score for OCA treated mice of 0.3+/−0.48. Both Amino Acid Composition A-1 and OCA were statistically different from vehicle for ballooning score when compared using Dunnett's multiple comparisons test (Amino Acid Composition A-1 p=0.0001, OCA p=0.0001). Raw data are shown in Tables 37-40.

TABLE 37 NAFLD Activity Score NAFLD Activity Score (NAS) Condition Normal Vehicle- Amino Acid C57BL/6 treated Composition A-1 OCA treated mice STAM mice treated STAM mice STAM mice Mean 0 4.7 3.1 2.9 stdev 0 0.67 0.74 0.74

TABLE 38 NAFLD Activity: Steatosis Score Steatosis Normal Vehicle- Amino Acid C57BL/6 treated Composition A-1 OCA treated mice STAM mice treated STAM mice STAM mice Mean 0 1 0.9 0.8 stdev 0 0.00 0.32 0.42

TABLE 39 NAFLD Activity: Inflammation Score Inflammation Normal Vehicle- Amino Acid C57BL/6 treated Composition A-1 OCA treated mice STAM mice treated STAM mice STAM mice Mean 0 2.1 1.8 1.8 stdev 0 0.32 0.63 0.79

TABLE 40 NAFLD Activity: Ballooning Score Ballooning Normal Vehicle- Amino Acid C57BL/6 treated Composition A-1 OCA treated mice STAM mice treated STAM mice STAM mice Mean 0 1.6 0.4 0.3 stdev 0 0.52 0.52 0.48

Fibrosis: Sirius Red Staining Results

Fibrosis was assessed by analysis of Sirius red positively stained cell area from stained liver sections from each animal. Images were quantified using the percent of positively stained area was used as a measure of fibrosis. Results of this analysis are shown in Table 39. Data are mean±standard deviation (stdev). Normal C57BL/6 mice fed standard chow had a mean positive area of 0.286+/−0.09. Vehicle treated STAM™ mice had a mean positive area of 1.1+/−0.26. Amino Acid Composition A-1 treated mice had a mean positive area of 0.828+/−0.33. OCA treated mice had a mean score of 0.776+/−0.25. Amino Acid Composition A-1 and OCA were statistically different from vehicle when compared using Dunnett's multiple comparisons test (Amino Acid Composition A-1 p=0.00494, OCA p<0.016). Raw data are shown in Table 41.

TABLE 41 Fibrosis (mean positively stained area, Sirius red) Condition Normal Vehicle- Amino Acid C57BL/6 treated Composition A-1 OCA treated mice STAM mice treated STAM mice STAM mice Mean 0.286 1.1 0.828 0.776 stdev 0.09 0.26 0.33 0.25

Similarly to the statistically significant improvement in the NAFLD activity score, ballooning, and fibrosis in the STAM mouse model after treatment with Amino Acid Composition A-1 (FIG. 1A), a statistically significant improvement in the NAFLD activity score, ballooning, and fibrosis was determined in the high-fat, high fructose and cholesterol diet (HFFC) mouse model after treatment with Amino Acid Composition A-1 (FIG. 1B).

α-Smooth Muscle Actin (α-SMA) Staining Results

Liver sections of all mice were stained for the marker α-smooth muscle actin (αSMA) to identify activated hepatic stellate cells. Images were quantified using the percent of positively stained area was used as a measure of stellate cell activation. Results are shown in Table 42. Data are mean±standard deviation (stdev); p values are compared to vehicle-treated STAM mice control; by one-tailed T test.

Normal C57BL/6 mice fed standard chow had a mean positive area of 0.682+/−0.26. Vehicle treated STAM™ mice had a mean positive area of 2.128+/−0.50. Amino Acid Composition A-1 treated mice had a mean positive area of 1.657+/−0.84. OCA treated mice had a mean score of 1.562+/−0.31.

TABLE 42 Activated hepatic stellate cells (mean positively stained area, α-smooth muscle actin) Condition Normal Vehicle- Amino Acid C57BL/6 treated Composition A-1 OCA treated mice STAM mice treated STAM mice STAM mice Mean 0.682 2.128 1.657 1.562 stdev 0.26 0.50 0.84 0.31 p = 0.073 p < 0.05

Summary

Treatment with Amino Acid Composition A-1 significantly reduced NASH severity to levels equivalent to Farnesoid X Receptor (FXR) inhibition by OCA (which is currently under clinical investigation by Intercept Pharmaceuticals, Inc. for treatment of NASH), as indicated by significant reduction in NAFLD Activity Score (NAS) (mean NAS: 3.1+/−0.74 for Amino Acid Composition A-1 vs. vehicle treated STAM™ mice mean score of 4.7+/−0.67, compared to OCA treated mice mean score of 2.9+/−0.74), and development of fibrosis as indicated by the downregulation of hepatic stellate cell activation (mean αSMA positively stained area: 1.657+/−0.84 for Amino Acid Composition A-1 vs. vehicle treated STAM™ mice mean area of 2.128+/−0.50, compared to OCA treated mice mean area of 1.562+/−0.31).

TABLE 43 NAFLD Activity Score: raw data Normal Vehicle- Amino Acid C57BL/6 treated Composition A-1 OCA treated mice STAM mice treated STAM mice STAM mice 0 6 3 4 0 5 4 2 0 5 4 2 0 4 3 4 0 5 2 3 0 5 2 3 0 4 3 2 0 4 3 3 0 4 3 3 0 5 4 3

TABLE 44 NAFLD Activity: Steatosis Score: raw data Steatosis Normal Vehicle- Amino Acid C57BL/6 treated Composition A-1 OCA treated mice STAM mice treated STAM mice STAM mice 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1

TABLE 45 NAFLD Activity: Inflammation Score: raw data Inflammation Normal Vehicle- Amino Acid C57BL/6 treated Composition A-1 OCA treated mice STAM mice treated STAM mice STAM mice 0 3 1 2 0 2 2 1 0 2 2 1 0 2 2 2 0 2 1 2 0 2 1 3 0 2 2 1 0 2 2 3 0 2 2 2 0 2 3 1

TABLE 46 NAFLD Activity: Ballooning Score: raw data Ballooning Normal Vehicle- Amino Acid C57BL/6 treated Composition A-1 OCA treated mice STAM mice treated STAM mice STAM mice 0 2 1 1 0 2 1 0 0 2 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 2 1 0 0 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 1

TABLE 47 Fibrosis (mean positively stained area, Sirius red): raw data Normal Vehicle- Amino Acid C57BL/6 treated Composition A-1 OCA treated mice STAM mice treated STAM mice STAM mice 0.26 0.79 1.07 0.36 0.35 1.43 0.58 0.56 0.19 1.44 0.48 1.1 0.31 1.36 0.58 1.19 0.19 1.04 1.07 0.89 0.36 0.75 0.34 0.91 0.24 1.07 0.86 0.66 0.37 1.13 1.43 0.72 0.18 0.83 0.96 0.68 0.41 1.16 0.91 0.69

TABLE 48 Activated hepatic stellate cells (mean positively stained area, α-smooth muscle actin): raw data Normal Vehicle- Amino Acid C57BL/6 treated Composition A-1 OCA treated mice STAM mice treated STAM mice STAM mice 0.47 2.16 0.81 1.46 0.59 2.77 1.35 1.51 1.13 2.21 1.3 1.49 0.52 1.5 3.03 1.17 0.75 2.87 2.04 1.49 0.46 1.93 0.97 1.5 0.37 1.6 3.08 1.13 0.85 1.46 1.91 2.03 0.62 2.36 1.15 1.87 1.06 2.42 0.93 1.97

Example 7: Reduction of Fibrogenic Gene Expression in Hepatic Stellate Cells Treated with an Amino Acid Composition

Hepatic stellate cells in a healthy liver are in the space of Disse, between the hepatocytes and liver sinusoidal endothelial cells. In response to liver injury hepatic stellate cells become activated, proliferative and contractile, increase production of αSMA, secretion of type I and III collagens and specific MMP and TIMP proteins. LX-2 cells were selected as a model of activated hepatic stellate cells and used to test whether specific amino acid compositions would reduce fibrogenic gene expression induced with TGFβ1.

LX-2 hepatic stellate cells (Millipore) were seeded on day 0 at 1.67E4 cells per well in collagen I coated 96-well microplates (ThermoFisher) in Dulbecco's Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM, Corning) supplemented with 2% heat inactivated fetal bovine serum (HI-FBS, HyClone) and 0.2% Primocin (InVivoGen) and incubated overnight at 37° C., 5% CO2. On day 1, cells were washed twice with 150 μL per well DPBS (Gibco) and replaced with amino acid free DMEM (US Biologicals) containing a defined custom amino acid concentration based on the mean physiological concentrations in blood based on values published in the Human Metabolome Database (1,2,3), with 25 mM Glucose, 1 mM Sodium Pyruvate and a dose curve of defined amino acid compositions LIVRQ+N-Acetylcysteine, LIVRQ, RQ+N-Acetylcysteine, N-acetylcysteine, LIV at 40× the concentration present in the basal HMDB (Human Metabolome Database (Wishart D S, Tzur D, Knox C, et al., HMDB: the Human Metabolome Database. Nucleic Acids Res. 2007 January; 35(Database issue):D521-6. 17202168)) derived amino acid concentrations or individually with leucine, isoleucine, valine, arginine, glutamine or cysteine at 50× the HMDB derived concentrations. Combinations containing N-acetylcysteine were dosed with 10 mM. Cells were pretreated for 6 hours at 37° C., 5% CO2. After pretreatment, TGFβ1 (R&D Systems) or vehicle was spiked into each well for a final concentration of 5 ng/mL and cells were incubated under this stimulus for a further 12 hours at 37° C., 5% CO2.

After 12 hour incubation, RNA was prepared as described using the FastLane Cell Multiplex Kit (Qiagen) as described in the manufacturers protocol. Two microliters of cell lysate was utilized in subsequent qRT-PCR experiments using the FastLane Cell Multiplex Kit at a reduced final qPCR reaction volume of 20 μL. Quantitative PCR was conducted on lysates to determine collagen-1a1 expression normalized to β-actin housekeeping expression using the ΔΔCt method using TaqMan primer probes (Integrated DNA Technologies: Col1A1, Hs.PT.58.15517795; Actb, Hs.PT.39a.22214847; Acta2, Hs.PT.56a.24853961; Timp2, Hs.PT.58.14780594).

Results:

Table 49 shows the Col1a1, Acta2, and Timp2 gene expression in LX-2 cells treated with amino acid combinations compared to vehicle with or without TGFβ1 stimulus. LIVRQ+N-Acetylcysteine, LIVRQ, RQ+N-Acetylcysteine, and N-acetylcysteine reduced Col1a1 expression and Timp2 expression. LIVRQ+N-acetylcysteine shows the largest reduction of Col1a1, Acta2, and Timp2 gene expression. LIVRQ-N-acetylcysteine reduces Acta2 expression significantly greater than N-Acetylcysteine alone, RQ+N-acetylcysteine, and LIV. LIVRQ+N-acetylcysteine reduces Timp2 expression significantly greater than any of the other combinations (Table 49).

TABLE 49 Col1a1 Acta2 Timp2 Amino Number Number Number Acid Std. of Std. of Std. of TGFβ1 Supplement Mean Deviation values Mean Deviation values Mean Deviation values Yes Vehicle 2.861 0.3151 4 0.801 0.1149 4 1.658 0.2791 4 No Vehicle 1.042 0.3102 4 1.006 0.1190 4 1.022 0.2400 4 Yes LIVRQNAC 1.267 0.4106 4 0.292 0.0969 4 0.535 0.0306 4 Yes LIVRQ 1.787 0.2926 4 0.267 0.0637 4 0.975 0.2006 4 Yes RQNAC 1.664 0.3320 4 0.487 0.1042 4 0.897 0.1932 4 Yes NAC 1.659 0.4695 4 0.647 0.1097 4 1.076 0.0681 4 Yes LIV 2.831 0.3404 3 0.793 0.0812 4 1.927 0.0944 4

Table 50 shows the Col1a1 expression of individual amino acids with or without TGFβ1 stimulus at 1× or 50× the HMDB derived amino acid concentration. Individually, only cysteine showed a significant decrease in Col1a1 expression at 50×.

TABLE 50 Amino Col1a1 Acid Std. Number TGFβ1 Supplement Mean Deviation of values No Vehicle 1.015 0.1832 8 Yes 1X CYS 2.491 0.1588 4 Yes 50X CYS 1.695 0.3310 4 Yes 1X ILE 2.020 0.1451 4 Yes 50X ILE 2.028 0.3667 4 Yes 1X LEU 1.901 0.3360 4 Yes 50X LEU 2.372 0.4153 4 Yes 1X VAL 2.093 0.2157 4 Yes 50X VAL 2.203 0.5762 4 No Vehicle 1.010 0.1510 8 Yes 1X ARG 1.620 0.6691 4 Yes 50X ARG 1.970 0.7740 4 No Vehicle 1.012 0.1681 8 Yes 1X GLN 2.340 0.7069 4 Yes 50X GLN 2.194 0.3359 4

Example 8: Reduction in Hepatocyte Inflammation after Treatment with an Amino Acid Composition

The ability of amino acids to influence hepatocyte inflammation was assessed using HepG2 Hepatocellular Carcinoma cells stably expressing NF-kB luciferase reporter system (Signosis, Inc.). HepG2 cells were seeded on day 0 in 4.5e4 in a 96-well microplates (ThermoFisher) in Dulbecco's Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM, Corning) supplemented with 0.1% heat inactivated fetal bovine serum (HI-FBS, HyClone) and 0.2% Primocin (InVivoGen) and incubated overnight at 37° C., 5% CO₂. On day 1, cells were washed once with 150 μL per well DPBS (Gibco) and replaced with amino acid free DMEM (US Biologicals) containing a defined custom amino acid concentration based on the mean physiological concentrations in blood based on values published in the Human Metabolome Database (Wishart D S, Tzur D, Knox C, et al., HMDB: the Human Metabolome Database. Nucleic Acids Res. 2007 January; 35(Database issue):D521-6. 17202168), with 25 mM Glucose, 1 mM Sodium Pyruvate and a dose curve of defined amino acid compositions (i.e. vehicle, LIVRQ+N-acetylcysteine, LIVRQ, RQ+N-acetylcysteine, N-acetylcysteine alone, LIV or individually with Leucine, Isoleucine, Valine, Arginine, Glutamine, and Cysteine) at 50× (Table 51). Cells were pretreated in the defined media for 12 hours at 37° C., 5% CO₂. After pretreatment, TNFα (R&DSystems) or vehicle was spiked into each well for a final concentration of 100 pM and cells were incubated under this stimulus for an additional 6 hours at 37° C., 5% CO₂. After 12-hour incubation, cells were washed 1× in 150u1 cold PBS and lysed using Passive Lysis Buffer and luciferase assay was performed according to manufacturer's protocol (Signosis). Firefly luciferase activity was assessed using a Bio-Tek SynergyH4 plater reader and luminometer (Sitcheran R*, Comb W C, Cogswell P C, Baldwin A S*. Essential role for epidermal growth factor receptor in glutamate receptor signaling to NF-kappaB. Mol Cell Biol. (2008) August; 28(16):5061-70. Epub 2008 Jun. 9).

TNFα-stimulated NF-kB activity was unaffected by treating cells in 50× Leucine, Isoleucine, Valine, Arginine, and Glutamine, relative to the 1× Plasma amino acid baseline media. Pretreating cells in 50× Cysteine did result in a significant blunting of TNFα-induced NF-kB activity. Combinatorial treatments with the single amino acids did have varying effects on the NF-kB reporter activity, but importantly, the combination of all 6 amino acids together (LIVRQNAC) resulted in the most significant inhibition of TNFα induced NF-kB activity in liver cells (Table 51).

TABLE 51 NF-kB Reporter Activity Amino Acid Std. Number TNFα Supplement Mean Deviation of values 100 pM Vehicle (1x AA) 8865.50 333.05 2 100 pM LIVRQNAC 3960.50 678.12 2 100 pM LIVRQ 5685.00 1453.81 2 100 pM RQNAC 5618.00 926.31 2 100 pM NAC 6852.00 1023.89 2 100 pM LIV 5911.00 422.85 2 100 pM 1x L 5811.00 134.35 2 100 pM 50x L 6070.50 58.69 2 100 pM 1x I 8129.50 713.47 2 100 pM 50x I 8937.50 17.68 2 100 pM 1x V 7255.50 557.91 2 100 pM 50x V 5992.00 644.88 2 100 pM 1x R 10170.50 140.71 2 100 pM 50x R 9760.00 1083.29 2 100 pM 1x Glu 8201.00 2091.62 2 100 pM 50x Glu 7313.50 1054.30 2 100 pM 1x Cys 9968.50 1614.33 2 100 pM 50x Cys 6820.50 23.34 2

Example 9: Treatment with an Amino Acid Composition Ameliorates NASH Progression in Two Rodent Models by Impacting Lipid Metabolism, Inflammation, and Fibrosis

The amino acid composition is formulated to simultaneously target multiple mechanisms of disease pathology to safely and effectively treat NASH (Table 52). As described herein, the efficacy of the amino acid composition was studied in two established mouse models of NASH to determine the effect of the amino acid composition on signs and symptoms associated with NASH and related disorders (FIG. 2).

TABLE 52 Exemplary amino acid components of the amino acid composition. Amino acid wt. ratio wt. % g/packet g dose #1 g dose #2 Leucine 1 16.78 1.00 g 2 g 4 g Isoleucine 0.5 8.39 0.50 g 1 g 2 g Valine 0.5 8.39 0.50 g 1 g 2 g Arginine HCl 1.81 30.37 1.81 g 3.62 g 7.24 g Glutamine 2 33.56 2.00 g 4 g 8 g N-acetylcysteine 0.15 2.52 0.15 g 0.3 g 0.6 g Total amino acids 5.96 g ~12 g ~24 g

Animal Studies

The STAM™ mouse is a model for non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), developed by SMC Laboratories, Inc. Evidence of fatty liver is present by 5 weeks of age, followed by NASH by 7 weeks of age, and fibrosis by 9 weeks of age. Male STAM mice were generated in C57BL/6 mice, which received a low dose streptozotocin 2 days after birth and were fed a high fat diet (57% kcal fat, HFD32, CLEA Japan, Inc.) starting at 4 weeks old (Saito K. et al., 2015 Sci Rep 5:12466; hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety). The amino acid composition was administered to STAM mice at a dose of 1.6 m/kg twice daily for 3 weeks starting at 6 weeks of age. One group of vehicle treated STAM mice was included as a control. Unfasted mice were euthanized at 9 weeks old. Plasma and liver samples were harvested for further analysis (FIG. 3).

The FATZO™ mouse is an inbred, polygenic model of obesity, metabolic syndrome, and NASH, developed by Crown Bioscience, Inc (Peterson R G. Et al., 2017 PLoS One; hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety). Male FATZO mice were fed a high fat, fructose, and cholesterol (HFFC) diet (40% kcal fat, D12079B, Research Diets, Inc. and 5% fructose in drinking water) starting at 6 weeks old to induce NAFLD and NASH. Evidence of fatty liver is present by 4 weeks post induction, followed by NASH by 16 weeks post induction and fibrosis by 20 weeks of induction. The designed amino acid composition was administered at a dose of 3.0 g/kg twice daily for 4 weeks starting at 16 weeks post induction (FIG. 3). One group of vehicle treated FATZO mice was included as control. Unfasted mice were euthanized at 20 weeks post-induction. Plasma and liver samples were harvested for further analysis.

Histological Analysis

The Aperio ScanScope CS whole slide digital imaging system (Vista, Calif.) was used for imaging in H&E, Picric Sirius Red, SMA, F4/80. Images were captured from whole slides.

The livers were evaluated by veterinary pathologists blind to sample ID using the NASH Clinical Research Network (CRN) liver histological scoring system (Kleiner Del., et al., 2015, hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety). The NASH CRN Scoring System assesses progression of steatosis, lobular inflammation, hepatocyte ballooning, degeneration, and fibrosis. One cross section of liver for each case was analyzed with the NASH score system. Steatosis, lobular inflammation, and fibrosis progression was assessed on a 0-3 scale. Ballooning degeneration was assessed on a 0-2 scale.

The Positive Pixel Count algorithm of the Aperio Automatic Image Quantitation was used to quantify the percentage of a specific stain present in a scanned slide image. A range of color (range of hues and saturation) and three intensity ranges (weak, positive, and strong) were masked and evaluated. The algorithm counted the number and intensity-sum in each intensity range, along with three additional quantities: average intensity, ratio of strong/total number, and average intensity of weak positive pixels.

A specific positive pixel algorithm was used for imaging the Sirius Red and Oil Red O liver sections. The positive pixel algorithm was modified to distinguish between the orange and blue colors. Alterations from the normal “hue value” (0.1 to 0.96) and “color saturation” (0.04 to 0.29), were made for the Sirius Red evaluation. Vasculature and artifacts were excluded from analysis.

Liver Triglyceride and Cholesterol Measurement

Liver total lipid-extracts were obtained by Folch's method (Folch J. et al., J. Biol. Chem. 1957; 226:497; hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety). Liver samples were homogenized in chloroform-methanol (2:1, v/v) and incubated overnight at room temperature. After washing with chloroform-methanol-water (8:4:3, v/v/v), the extracts were evaporated to dryness, and dissolved in isopropanol. Liver triglyceride and cholesterol contents were measured by the Triglyceride E-test and Cholesterol E-test, respectively.

Gene Expression Analysis

Liver RNA samples were converted into cDNA libraries using the Illumina TruSeq Stranded mRNA sample preparation kit (Illumina # RS-122-2103). Transcriptome were analyzed at Q2 Solutions (Morrisville, N.C.). RNA Seq data were normalized and analyzed using Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (QIAGEN Bioinformatics). Mouse liver gene expression at the pathway level was focused on because it is translatable to human NAFLD (Teufel A, et al., Gastroenterology, 2016, hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety).

Metabolite Analysis

Metabolic profiling based on both capillary electrophoresis time-of-flight mass spectrometry (CE-TOFMS) and LC-TOFMS platforms was performed at Human Metabolome Technologies (Yamagata, Japan). Metabolites in the samples were identified by comparing the migration time and m/z ratio with authentic standards and quantified by comparing their peak areas with those of authentic standards.

Liver Cytokine/Chemokine Measurement

The levels of IL-1b, MCP-1, and MIP-1 protein in liver were quantified using the multiplex ELISA Assay (Meso Scale Discovery, Rockville, Md.).

The Amino Acid Composition Improves Ballooning and Fibrosis in Both STAM and FATZO Mice

Treatment with the amino acid composition significantly reduced NAFLD activity scores (NAS) in both STAM and FATZO mice (FIG. 4A). Treatment with the amino acid composition also significantly decreased hepatocyte ballooning in STAM mice (FIG. 4B). Scores of steatosis and inflammation were not changed according to histological measures by treatment of STAM mice with the amino acid composition. The Sirius Red-positive, fibrosis area was significantly lowered by treating the STAM mice with the amino acid composition, while the Oil Red O area was not changed by treating the STAM mice with the amino acid composition (FIG. 4C). Liver triglyceride and cholesterol levels were not changed.

Treatment with the amino acid composition also significantly decreased hepatocyte ballooning in FATZO mice (FIG. 4D). Scores of steatosis and inflammation as well as liver triglyceride and cholesterol levels were not changed in the FATZO mice treated with the amino acid composition treatment. The Sirius Red-positive, fibrosis area was significantly lowered by treatment of the FATZO mice with the amino acid composition, while the Oil Red O area was not changed by treatment of the FATZO mice with the amino acid composition treatment (FIG. 4E).

The Amino Acid Composition Enhances Fatty Acid Oxidation

NAFLD is characterized by hepatic lipid accumulation. Liver triglyceride is attributable to a precise balance between acquisition by de novo lipogenesis and uptake of non-esterified fatty acids from the plasma, versus disposal by fatty acid oxidation and by the secretion of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins (Kawano Y, Cohen Del., J Gastroenterol. 2013, hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety). Compared to control mice, STAM mice had higher liver unsaturated fatty acids, which were reduced by treatment with the amino acid composition (FIG. 5A and Table 53). Liver acylcarnitines in STAM mice were increased by treatment with the amino acid composition, suggesting enhanced fatty acid beta-oxidation (FIG. 5B and Table 53).

TABLE 53 P-values and fold changes for liver acylcarnitine and unsaturated fatty acids following treatment of STAM mice with the amino acid composition (treated) compared to control. KEGG Control Control Treated Treated Lipid ID HMDB ID p-val fold change p-val fold change AC(13:1) No ID No ID −1.61 7.94E−02 1.32 FA(14:3) No ID No ID 5.17E−03 1.69 4.83E−01 −1.24 FA(20:3) No ID No ID 6.97E−06 18.29 1.35E−01 −2.17 FA(22:4) No ID No ID 7.12E−07 34.79 3.15E−01 −1.79 FA(22:5)-1 No ID No ID 2.39E−02 3.31 1.19E−01 −1.80 FA(22:5)-2 No ID No ID 2.11E−04 3.03 1.69E−02 −1.92 Linoleic acid C01595 HMDB00673 9.90E−04 3.18 1.68E−02 −1.77 Linolenic C06427 HMDB01388 3.57E−05 35.88 4.08E−02 −1.99 acid Oleic acid C00712 HMDB00207 1.95E−04 18.05 3.67E−02 −1.88 Palmitoleic C08362 HMDB03229 9.84E−05 2.69 2.70E−02 −1.48 acid

Differential gene expression patterns in the liver impacted by treatment with the amino acid composition were interpreted in the context of the upstream regulator systems biology knowledgebase framework developed by Ingenuity Pathway Analysis. Computed z-scores indicated that the gene expression patterns are consistent with activation of ACOX1, which encodes peroxisomal fatty acid oxidation, as an upstream regulator (FIG. 6 and Table 54).

TABLE 54 P-values and fold changes for gene expression associated with the ACOX1 pathway following treatment of STAM mice with the amino acid composition (treated) compared to control. Control Treated fold Control fold Treated gene IPA_upstream_regulator ACOX1_path IPA_gene_name change p-val change p-val Akr1c6 ACOX1 ACOX1 AKR1C4 −1.68 1.88E−06 1.207 8.606E−02 C9 ACOX1 ACOX1 −3.10 7.81E−07 1.370 1.678E−02 Ces3a ACOX1 ACOX1 −2.10 2.69E−06 1.379 3.900E−02 Ces3b ACOX1 ACOX1 −3.16 1.05E−07 1.476 8.274E−02 Cyp2c50 ACOX1 ACOX1 Cyp2c54 −1.72 1.24E−04 1.243 6.999E−02 Cyp4a12a ACOX1 ACOX1 −1.59 4.60E−03 1.293 8.589E−02 Cyp7b1 ACOX1 ACOX1 −4.45 4.29E−04 1.408 7.877E−02 Egfr NFKB; ACOX1 ACOX1 −1.98 1.31E−04 1.348 1.187E−02 Gstp1 ACOX1 ACOX1 −2.31 2.56E−06 1.281 2.924E−02 Mup1 ACOX1 ACOX1 −7.69 1.47E−03 1.781 7.683E−02 Mup11 ACOX1 ACOX1 −2.47 9.01E−03 1.703 5.779E−02 Mup14 ACOX1 ACOX1 −2.05 1.27E−02 1.395 4.890E−02 Mup16 ACOX1 ACOX1 −6.27 4.38E−03 1.465 7.558E−02 Mup6 ACOX1 ACOX1 −1.73 2.27E−02 1.330 5.784E−02 Selenbp2 TGFB; IL10; ACOX1 Selenbp1 −15.77 3.73E−05 3.015 2.916E−02 ACOX1 Serpina1c TGFB; ACOX1 ACOX1 −2.25 7.22E−09 1.290 5.612E−02 Serpina1e TGFB; ACOX1 ACOX1 −43.20 3.93E−08 2.361 1.852E−02 Slc4a4 ACOX1 ACOX1 1.55 7.00E−06 −1.209 4.682E−03 Trib3 IL2; NFKB; ACOX1 ACOX1 2.40 3.14E−04 −1.472 1.987E−02

The Amino Acid Composition Tempers Inflammation Pathways

Inflammation is a “second-hit” of NASH. The differential gene expression patterns in the liver as a result of treatment with the amino acid composition yielded z-scores within IPA analysis associated with upstream regulator activation of anti-inflammatory IL-10 (FIG. 7A) and inhibition of pro-inflammatory NF-kB (FIG. 7B and Table 55), interferons, IL-1b, and IL-2 (FIG. 7C and Table 55). At the protein level, treatment with the amino acid composition significantly down-regulated hepatic MCP-1 and MIP-1, which are the ligands of C-C chemokine receptor types 2 (CCR2) and 5 (CCR5), respectively (FIG. 8). Thus, treatment with the amino acid composition tempered the immune system toward an anti-inflammatory state, which may dampen NASH progression.

TABLE 55 P-values and fold changes for gene expression associated with the ACOX1 pathway following treatment of STAM mice with the amino acid composition (treated) compared to control. IPA upstream IPA gene IL2 gene regulator name IL10_path IL1b_path path Abcb1a NFKB; IL10 IL10 Abcb1b NFKB; IL10 IL10 Acta1 TGFB Adora1 TGFB AK007436 NFKB ADAMTS9 AK043676 IL1b PFKP IL1b AK154184 IL1b; TGFB CYBA IL1b AK158038 IL2 NAV1 IL2 Atf5 IL1b; IL2 IL1b IL2 Bcl2a1d IL1b; IL2; NFKB IL1b IL2 Capn5 IL2 IL2 Ccr1 IL1b; IL2; TGFB IL1b IL2 Cd274 IL1b; IL2; NFKB IL1b IL2 Cd83 IL1b; IL2; NFKB; TGFB IL1b IL2 Chst11 TGFB Clec2i TGFB Egfr NFKB Entpd1 IL2 IL2 Fgf21 TGFB Gabrd TGFB Gbp4 IL1b; IL10 Gbp6 IL10 IL1b Gbp5 IL10 IL10 Gm8909 IL1b; NFKB; IL10 HLA-A IL10 IL1b Gpr85 TGFB Gucy2c TGFB Hk2 IL1b; IL2 IL1b IL2 Hsd17b6 TGFB Il1rn IL1b; NFKB; TGFB; IL10 IL1b IL10 Lama3 IL1b IL1b Lck IL2 IL2 Lifr IL1b; IL2; TGFB IL1b IL2 Msr1 TGFB Mst1r TGFB Nlrp3 TGFB P2ry14 TGFB Pcsk1 IL1b IL1b Pla2g4a IL1b; TGFB IL1b Plb1 IL1b IL1b Rgs16 IL1b; IL2; NFKB IL1b IL2 Saa4 IL1b IL1b Selenbp2 TGFB; IL10 Selenbp1 IL10 Sema3b TGFB Serpina1c TGFB Serpina1e TGFB Serpina3k IL1b; NFKB; TGFB IL1b Serpinb2 IL1b; NFKB IL1b Slc23a2 TGFB Slc2a6 NFKB; IL10 IL10 Slc7a1 NFKB; TGFB Slc7a11 IL1b; IL10 IL10 IL1b Tk1 IL1b IL1b Tlr11 IL10 IL10 Tlr2 IL1b; IL2; NFKB; TGFB; IL10 IL1b IL2 IL10 Trib3 IL2; NFKB IL2 Xcl1 IL2 IL2 Control Treated fold Control p- fold Treated gene NFKB_path TGFB_path change val change p-val Abcb1a NFKB 3.02 1.55E−06 −1.239 1.047E−01 Abcb1b NFKB −2.24 4.90E−03 1.272 9.745E−02 Acta1 TGFB 7.96 5.87E−03 −1.849 1.044E−01 Adora1 TGFB 1.94 1.99E−05 −1.222 3.262E−02 AK007436 NFKB 2.32 6.38E−03 −1.788 6.451E−02 AK043676 1.68 3.12E−03 −1.462 1.586E−02 AK154184 TGFB 1.99 1.02E−03 −1.222 9.247E−02 AK158038 1.62 2.63E−02 −1.659 1.587E−02 Atf5 1.71 3.00E−04 −1.223 9.622E−02 Bcl2a1d NFKB 4.00 1.74E−04 −1.733 3.064E−02 Capn5 1.51 2.05E−05 −1.235 5.908E−03 Ccr1 TGFB 2.82 1.28E−03 −1.352 7.496E−02 Cd274 NFKB 2.37 1.71E−07 −1.282 1.506E−02 Cd83 NFKB TGFB 2.41 5.36E−07 −1.434 6.661E−03 Chst11 TGFB 2.91 7.87E−06 −1.308 1.881E−02 Clec2i TGFB 1.80 1.01E−03 −1.226 5.963E−02 Egfr NFKB −1.98 1.31E−04 1.348 1.187E−02 Entpd1 1.87 1.84E−04 −1.218 8.413E−02 Fgf21 TGFB 49.56 1.03E−03 −1.478 4.472E−02 Gabrd TGFB 5.82 1.48E−04 −1.511 5.978E−02 Gbp4 1.60 1.01E−03 −1.234 5.234E−02 Gbp5 1.81 7.82E−05 −1.217 6.120E−02 Gm8909 NFKB 4.03 8.19E−04 −1.943 2.569E−02 Gpr85 TGFB 2.46 1.77E−02 −1.685 6.628E−02 Gucy2c TGFB 2.35 8.97E−03 −1.395 1.080E−01 Hk2 2.00 2.01E−04 −1.301 9.834E−02 Hsd17b6 TGFB 2.89 4.20E−05 −1.244 1.036E−02 Il1rn NFKB TGFB 4.43 5.94E−09 −1.273 1.951E−02 Lama3 −3.09 1.90E−05 1.650 5.542E−02 Lck 1.92 8.87E−04 −1.246 3.027E−02 Lifr TGFB −4.43 2.43E−05 1.406 2.099E−02 Msr1 TGFB 1.58 1.13E−03 −1.226 5.836E−02 Mst1r TGFB 2.08 4.17E−03 −1.523 1.147E−02 Nlrp3 TGFB 1.93 1.30E−03 −1.506 2.456E−02 P2ry14 TGFB 3.29 4.67E−05 −1.268 4.039E−02 Pcsk1 2.07 9.00E−03 −2.070 8.150E−02 Pla2g4a TGFB 2.10 7.94E−05 −1.265 1.064E−01 Plb1 2.01 2.09E−02 −1.696 2.324E−02 Rgs16 NFKB 7.68 2.47E−05 −1.604 4.319E−02 Saa4 −1.72 4.76E−02 1.283 9.771E−02 Selenbp2 TGFB −15.77 3.73E−05 3.015 2.916E−02 Sema3b TGFB 4.12 4.78E−05 −1.285 9.461E−02 Serpina1c TGFB −2.25 7.22E−09 1.290 5.612E−02 Serpina1e TGFB −43.20 3.93E−08 2.361 1.852E−02 Serpina3k NFKB TGFB −2.95 1.85E−08 1.500 1.125E−02 Serpinb2 NFKB 1.94 4.98E−02 −1.935 1.865E−02 Slc23a2 TGFB 2.00 1.02E−05 −1.258 2.229E−02 Slc2a6 NFKB 1.79 2.68E−02 −1.281 9.775E−02 Slc7a1 NFKB TGFB 1.64 3.96E−03 −1.324 8.657E−02 Slc7a11 65.45 1.35E−03 −1.869 1.068E−01 Tk1 −2.40 4.99E−06 1.295 4.036E−02 Tlr11 1.66 6.11E−03 −1.368 6.005E−02 Tlr2 NFKB TGFB 2.12 5.32E−05 −1.300 5.430E−02 Trib3 NFKB 2.40 3.14E−04 −1.472 1.987E−02 Xcl1 2.52 1.22E−03 −1.796 6.279E−02

The Amino Acid Composition Prevents Fibrogenesis Pathways

Fibrosis is at the nexus of several biologic processes, such as metabolic dysregulation, inflammation, and cell death. Lipid accumulation in hepatocytes and chronic inflammation induce fibrogenic activation of hepatic stellate cells (Wobser H, et al., Cell Res. 2009, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety). The liver gene expression pattern resulting from treatment with the amino acid composition was consistent with the suppression of the fibrogenic TGF-b signaling pathway (FIG. 7D).

Increasing evidence implicates that CCR2/CCR5 and their ligands, including MCP-1/MIP-1, promote macrophage recruitment and hepatic stellate cell activation which contribute to fibrosis following liver tissue damage (Lefebvre E, et al., PLoS One 2016, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety). The amino acid composition displayed a potent antifibrotic activity in the STAM model of NASH via reducing hepatic TGF-b signaling and MCP-1 and MIP-1 proteins (FIG. 8).

Conclusion

The amino acid composition demonstrated consistent disease modifying activity in both STAM and FATZO mouse models of NASH including improvement in NAS and amelioration of ballooning and fibrosis. The activity of the amino acid composition appears to be driven, at least in part, via increase in fatty acid oxidation, reduction in levels of key cytokines and transcription pathways associated with liver inflammation and fibrosis.

Example 10: Hepatocyte Model for Steatosis and Inflammation

Hepatocyte lipotoxicity appears to be a central driver of hepatic cellular injury via oxidative stress and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. The ability of amino acids to influence steatosis (lipid accumulation) and inflammation in hepatocytes was assessed using human primary hepatocytes (Lonza, TRL).

Cell Seeding and Maintenance

Primary hepatocytes lot nos. from two healthy human donors were seeded on day 0 at density of 6e04 cells in 96 well optical microplates (Thermofisher) in hepatocyte plating media (William's E medium (Gibco) supplemented with 10% heat-inactivated FBS (Atlanta Bio), 2 mM Glutamax (Gibco), 1×ITS plus (R&D systems), and 0.2% Primocin (InVivoGen) and incubated for 6 hours at 37° C., 5% CO₂. After 6 hours, cells were washed twice with 150 ul William's E medium and incubated overnight at 37° C., 5% CO₂ with serum-free hepatocytes culture media (Hepatocytes defined medium (Corning)) supplemented with 5 ug human recombinant EGF (Corning), 2 mM Glutamax (Gibco), and 1× Penicillin/Streptomycin. On day 1, cells were washed twice with 150 μL per well William's E medium (Gibco) and incubated for 24h in the hepatocyte culture media in the same conditions described above.

Amino Acids Pre-Treatment

On day 2, cells were washed twice with 150 ul DPBS 1× (Gibco) and maintained in amino acid-free WEM (US Biologicals) containing a defined custom amino acid concentration based on the mean physiological concentrations in blood. The values are published in the Human Metabolome Database (Wishart D S, Tzur D, Knox C, et al., HMDB: the Human Metabolome Database. Nucleic Acids Res. 2007 January; 35(Database issue):D521-6. 17202168; which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety). This custom media is supplemented with 11 mM Glucose, 0.272 mM Sodium Pyruvate, and a dose curve of defined amino acid compositions (i.e., vehicle, LIVRQ+N-acetylcysteine, LIVRQ, RQ+N-acetylcysteine, N-acetylcysteine alone, LIV, or individually with L-Leucine, L-Isoleucine, L-Valine, L-Arginine, L-Glutamine, and L-Cysteine) at various ranges of concentrations. Cells were maintained in this defined media for 24 hours at 37° C., 5% CO₂.

Co-Treatment with Free Fatty Acids and Different Amino Acids Combination

After pre-treatment, cells were exposed to free fatty acids (FFA) at 250 uM with a ratio of 2:1 (Oleate:Palmitate) supplemented with TNF-α (Thermofisher) at 1 ng/ml or vehicle. Cells were incubated with the FFAs mixture and the different amino acids combinations for 24 hours at 37° C., 5% CO₂. After 24 hours incubation, media was removed for cytokine analysis and replaced by fresh media containing the same stimulus conditions and amino acid concentrations. Cells were incubated for an additional 48 hours for a total of 72 hours of FFA and TNFα stimulation.

Cytokine Analysis after 24h by ELISA

Human CCL2 (MCP-1) was measured by ELISA (Human CCK2/MCP-1 DuoSet ELISA, R&D Systems) at 1/5 or 1/10 dilution in 1× Reagent Diluent (Reagent Ancillary Kit 2, R&D Systems). Data were normalized to the specific per well cell density determined by nuclei count stained by Hoechst 3342 (Life technologies) in the fluorescence microscopy described below.

Intracellular Lipid Accumulation Analysis after 72h by Fluorescence Microscopy

After 72 hours, cells were washed twice in 100u1 PBS 1× (Gibco), fixed with 4% Paraformaldehyde, and washed twice with PBS 1×(100 ul). After fixation, lipids were stained with HCS LipidTOX Red Neutral (Thermofisher Scientific) diluted 1000× and nuclei were stained with Hoechst 3342 (Life Technologies) diluted to 4 ug/ml. The LipidTOX™ neutral lipid stain has an extremely high affinity for neutral lipid droplets that was detected by fluorescence microscopy using a high content imager (Molecular Devices).

Results Lipid Accumulation and Steatosis Phenotypes

Primary human hepatocytes from healthy donors were found to have low levels of lipid accumulation (FIG. 9A-9D). Treatment of the cells with free fatty acids (FF)+TNFα induced lipid accumulation (FIG. 91-9L) with a macro-steatosis phenotype. Treatment with LIVRQNAC changed the hepatocyte phenotypes from macro-steatosis to micro-steatosis (FIG. 9E-9H).

MCP1/CCL2 Secretion

Tables 56-59 show the baseline subtracted secretion of MCP1/CCL2 in primary human hepatocytes cells from two healthy donors (donor 1 for Tables 56 and 57, and donor 2 for Tables 58 and 59). LIVRQNAC, LIVRQNAC+G, LIVRQNAC+S, LIVRQ and RQNAC significantly decreased MCP1/CCL2 secretion in both donors. The combination LIV, however, significantly increased MCP1/CCL2 secretion only in one of the donors. The addition of arginine (R) and glutamine (Q) to a combination of LIV decreased the secretion of MCP1/CCL2 in both donors compared to LIV alone. Individually, N-acetyl cysteine and glutamine are shown to significantly decrease MCP1/CCL2 secretion, while arginine increased MCP1 secretion. Isoleucine, Leucine and Valine did not have an effect on MCP1/CCL2 secretion.

TABLE 56 Changes in MCP1 expression for donor 1 upon administration of amino acid compositions MCP1 expression relative to Control—Donor 1 Number Amino Acid Conc. Std. of P- Supplement (X) Mean Deviation values value* Significance LIVRQNAC 40 −24.1616 0.032252 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQNAC 30 −22.2916 2.119583 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQNAC 20 −18.4363 0.850597 3 0.0005 *** LIVRQNAC 10 −14.3383 1.854977 3 0.0074 ** LIVRQNAC 1 0 1.048045 3 LIVRQNAC + G 40 −22.0824 0.873105 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQNAC + G 30 −19.2605 1.611788 3 0.0003 *** LIVRQNAC + G 20 −17.5807 2.893835 3 0.0009 *** LIVRQNAC + G 10 −13.7521 3.068991 3 0.0106 * LIVRQNAC + G 1 0 1.682719 3 LIVRQNAC + S 40 −32.4703 0.340537 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQNAC + S 30 −30.768 1.339048 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQNAC + S 20 −25.5964 1.854519 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQNAC + S 10 −17.8326 1.974033 3 0.0008 *** LIVRQNAC + S 1 2.37E−15 18.41384 3 LIV 40 15.52052 6.323205 3 0.0094 ** LIV 30 12.3111 10.02706 3 0.0475 * LIV 20 12.6686 4.109608 3 0.0401 * LIV 10 −5.18869 1.579468 3 0.6477 ns LIV 1 −1.2E−15 8.178943 3 LIVRQ 40 −25.9576 0.484283 3 0.0028 ** LIVRQ 30 −23.6562 2.599721 3 0.0099 ** LIVRQ 20 −13.4723 3.427666 3 0.6401 ns LIVRQ 10 −9.22141 7.599407 3 0.9986 ns LIVRQ 1 −8.23198 5.80889 3 RQNAC 40 −21.4681 2.903892 3 0.0003 *** RQNAC 30 −17.1873 5.202568 3 0.0038 ** RQNAC 20 −12.1782 2.907484 3 0.0506 ns RQNAC 10 −8.89378 4.748653 3 0.206 ns RQNAC 1 1.18E−15 10.02527 3 N-Acetyl Cysteine 40 −17.6065 1.211739 3 0.0009 *** N-Acetyl Cysteine 20 −10.8919 2.27818 3 0.0545 ns N-Acetyl Cysteine 10 −2.49755 8.795693 3 0.9424 ns N-Acetyl Cysteine 5 −0.76286 7.457085 3 0.9991 ns N-Acetyl Cysteine 0 0 6.716428 3

TABLE 57 Changes in MCP1 expression for donor 1 upon administration of single amino acid compositions MCP1 expression relative to Control - Donor 1 Number Amino Acid Conc. Std. of P- Supplement (μM) Mean Deviation values value* Significance Valine 23420 14.16805 19.23365 3 0.6777 ns Valine 11710 77.73396 137.82 3 0.9998 ns Valine 4684 23.6867 46.48697 3 0.2502 ns Valine 234 −2.4E−15 13.86902 3 Arginine 5440 10.9386 4.79774 3 0.0057 ** Arginine 2720 6.526801 4.266971 3 0.1517 ns Arginine 1088 5.114414 4.685563 3 0.3321 ns Arginine 109 2.37E−15 0.666016 3 Glutamine 22484 −21.8392 1.113443 3 0.0004 *** Glutamine 11242 −9.00139 1.68951 3 0.2459 ns Glutamine 3747 −0.89805 6.374471 3 0.9991 ns Glutamine 749 0 9.549143 3 Isoleucine 6639 −0.205 2.292188 3 0.9998 ns Isoleucine 3320 −2.41722 2.382379 3 0.4907 ns Isoleucine 1328 −0.30729 2.409691 3 0.9992 ns Isoleucine 66 −1.2E−15 3.163838 3 Leucine 15270 −1.36762 3.37035 3 0.8675 ns Leucine 7635 1.895506 3.757642 3 0.6872 ns Leucine 3054 3.340489 3.016641 3 0.2201 ns Leucine 153 5.92E−16 3.132507 3 N-Acetyl Cysteine 10000 −17.6065 1.211739 3 0.0009 *** N-Acetyl Cysteine 5000 −10.8919 2.27818 3 0.0545 ns N-Acetyl Cysteine 2500 −2.49755 8.795693 3 0.9424 ns N-Acetyl Cysteine 1000 −0.76286 7.457085 3 0.9991 ns N-Acetyl Cysteine 0 0 6.716428 3

TABLE 58 Changes in MCP1 expression for donor 2 upon administration of amino acid compositions MCP1 expression relative to Control - Donor 2 Number Amino Acid Conc. of Supplement (X) Mean Std. Deviation values P-value* Significance LIVRQNAC 40 −24.5376 1.632923 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQNAC 30 −13.6824 2.562571 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQNAC 20 −8.42053 1.545343 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQNAC 10 2.126223 0.453924 3 0.0007 *** LIVRQNAC 1 −4.7E−15 0.412226 3 LIVRQNAC + G 40 −35.3651 2.08381 3 0.0007 *** LIVRQNAC + G 30 −30.3247 5.225183 3 0.001 *** LIVRQNAC + G 20 −17.0719 4.522244 3 0.0119 * LIVRQNAC + G 10 −14.2586 2.767898 3 0.049 * LIVRQNAC + G 1 −7.1E−15 7.613666 3 LIVRQNAC + S 40 −35.8381 1.404782 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQNAC + S 30 −30.9946 2.372062 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQNAC + S 20 −16.8831 3.223007 3 0.0004 *** LIVRQNAC + S 10 −5.60595 10.2119 3 0.1887 LIVRQNAC + S 1 2.37E−15 4.4168 3 LIV 40 −46.7898 8.664441 3 0.3692 ns LIV 30 −34.5953 16.84743 3 0.6246 ns LIV 20 −28.0851 31.84348 3 0.7684 ns LIV 10 −11.0006 72.74556 3 0.9889 ns LIV 1 9.47E−15 60.93638 3 LIVRQ 40 −129.802 7.067989 3 0.0008 *** LIVRQ 30 −110.034 4.53852 3 0.0042 ** LIVRQ 20 −33.3611 31.87706 3 0.6524 LIVRQ 10 −3.30904 71.03267 3 0.9999 LIVRQ 1 −4.7E−15 46.12987 3 RQNAC 40 −133.48 1.908424 3 0.0006 *** RQNAC 30 −123.712 1.043889 3 0.0013 ** RQNAC 20 −109.575 5.533323 3 0.0044 ** RQNAC 10 −55.8583 22.72309 3 0.2273 RQNAC 1 1.42E−14 43.79031 3 N-Acetyl 10000 −28.4419 1.694 3 0.0001 *** Cysteine N-Acetyl 5000 −10.5725 4.362178 3 0.0012 ** Cysteine N-Acetyl 2500 −4.0591 5.600773 3 0.0572 ns Cysteine N-Acetyl 1000 1.602474 3.423109 3 0.0001 **** Cysteine N-Acetyl 0 0 2.068861 3 Cysteine

TABLE 59 Changes in MCP1 expression for donor 2 upon administration of single amino acid compositions MCP1 expression relative to Control - Donor 2 Number Amino Acid Conc. of Supplement (μM) Mean Std. Deviation values P-value* Significance Valine 23420 −30.7921 22.55378 3 0.6118 ns Valine 11710 38.24762 28.44112 3 0.4268 ns Valine 4684 10.79011 51.87642 3 0.9835 ns Valine 234 −1.4E−14 30.91388 3 Arginine 5440 8.493664 22.98385 3 0.9913 ns Arginine 2720 24.06261 63.49489 3 0.7429 ns Arginine 1088 24.95224 52.94171 3 0.7192 ns Arginine 109 −4.7E−15 11.27976 3 Glutamine 22484 −138.873 10.74317 3 0.0001 **** Glutamine 11242 −90.6558 15.43989 3 0.0037 ** Glutamine 3747 −45.0574 41.63249 3 0.2474 ns Glutamine 749 2.84E−14 59.86955 3 0.7631 Isoleucine 6639 18.62132 26.01824 3 0.5663 ns Isoleucine 3320 −5.64461 7.719105 3 0.9882 ns Isoleucine 1328 26.62309 5.65413 3 0.2613 ns Isoleucine 66 0 4.245462 3 Leucine 15270 −26.6436 10.08177 3 0.2607 ns Leucine 7635 −2.98815 21.00205 3 0.9989 ns Leucine 3054 16.11014 8.662188 3 0.68 ns Leucine 153 −4.7E−15 7.63396 3 N-Acetyl 10000 −28.4419 1.694 3 0.0001 *** Cysteine N-Acetyl 5000 −10.5725 4.362178 3 0.0012 ** Cysteine N-Acetyl 2500 −4.0591 5.600773 3 0.0572 ns Cysteine N-Acetyl 1000 1.602474 3.423109 3 0.0001 **** Cysteine N-Acetyl 0 0 2.068861 3 Cysteine

Example 11: Hepatic Stellate Cell—TNFα Inflammatory Response Methods

Primary human hepatic stellate cells were obtained from Samsara Sciences based on the following criteria for selecting donors: adult age (between 18 and 50 years), normal BMI (>18.5 and <25), and absence of confounding liver disease. Primary human hepatic stellate cells grown in Complete HSC Medium to ˜80% confluence in T75 or T150 flasks below passage 10 were seeded into sterile, collagen I coated, 96-well optical plastic microplates (ThermoScientific, 152036) at 4000 cells per well (˜1250 cells per cm²) and incubated for 6 hours at 37° C., 5% CO₂ in a humidified incubator.

After 6 hours, plates were removed from the incubator and the medium gently pipetted off and washed once with 150 μL per well DPBS. The DPBS was removed and the pretreatment medium (±single amino acid dropout, 1×HMDB DMEM+3% dialyzed FBS+0.2% Primocin, ±supplemental amino acid dose; see experiment for medium composition) was applied to the cells at 150 μL per well. Plates were returned to the incubator overnight, ˜14-15 hours.

After overnight pretreatment, the medium was removed from the cells, and the same pretreatment medium, now supplemented with 3 ng/mL TNFα is applied. Each plate contained 3 ng/mL TNFα in 1× human plasma amino acid (HMDB or PAA) concentration medium, 0 ng/mL in 1×HMDB, and 3 ng/mL TNFα+50 nM Bengamide in 1×HMDB to serve as controls. Plates were incubated for 12 hours at 37° C., 5% CO₂.

After 12 hour stimulus with TNFα, supernatant was removed and frozen at −80° C. in two separate aliquots. Plates were washed gently once with DPBS and 100 μL per well of 1×HMDB DMEM+3% dialyzed FBS+0.2% Primocin+10% CCK-8 viability reagent (Dojindo). Plates were incubated for 1 hour at 37° C., 5% CO₂.

After 1 hour of incubation, viability was measured on the Synergy plate reader (Absorbance at 977 (test), 900 (reference), and 450 (CCK8) nm). Immediately, the medium was removed and the plates were fixed with 70 μL per well 4% paraformaldehyde in PBS at room temperature for 20 minutes, followed by two 150 μL PBS washes, and stored with 100 μL per well PBS at 4° C. until immunofluorescence staining.

Human CCL2/MCP1 and Human IL-6 were measured by ELISA (Human CCK2/MCP-1 DuoSet ELISA, R&D Systems; Human IL-6 DuoSet ELISA, R&D Systems) at 1/5 and 1/20 dilution in 1× Reagent Diluent (Reagent Ancillary Kit 2, R&D Systems). Data were normalized to the specific per well cell density determined by Hoechst stained nuclei count.

Results Pro-Inflammatory MCP-1 Chemokine Secretion

Tables 60-63 show per-cell normalized MCP-1 chemokine secretion in primary human hepatic stellate cells from two donors as a fold change from the plasma amino acid background. Statistical significance calculated by one-way ANOVA with Dunnett's multiple comparison test within each treatment group. LIVRQNAC+G and RQNAC significantly decrease MCP-1 secretion in both donors. LIVRQNAC, LIVRQNAC+S reduced MCP1 secretion and was statistically significant in one of two donors. Individually, each of valine, arginine, and leucine had no significant impact on MCP-1 secretion. Glutamine reduced MCP1 secretion in both donors but was only statistically significant in one of two donors. N-acetyl cysteine significantly reduced MCP-1 secretion in both donors.

TABLE 60 Changes in MCP1 secretion for donor 3 upon administration of amino acid compositions Fold Change MCP1 Secretion Normalized Per Cell Number Conc. Std. of Amino Acid Supplement (X) Mean Deviation values Significance P-value LIVRQNAC 40 0.6237 0.2500 3 ns 0.2763 LIVRQNAC 30 0.6180 0.2436 3 ns 0.2657 LIVRQNAC 20 0.5679 0.1728 3 ns 0.1863 LIVRQNAC 10 0.5548 0.2139 3 ns 0.1694 LIVRQNAC 1 1.0000 0.3619 3 LIVRQNAC + G 40 0.6216 0.0903 3 ** 0.0036 LIVRQNAC + G 30 0.6742 0.0549 3 ** 0.0095 LIVRQNAC + G 20 0.6373 0.0888 3 ** 0.0047 LIVRQNAC + G 10 0.7075 0.0610 3 * 0.0179 LIVRQNAC + G 1 1.0000 0.1704 3 LIVRQNAC + S 40 0.5911 0.1451 3 ns 0.2045 LIVRQNAC + S 30 0.5932 0.1943 3 ns 0.2077 LIVRQNAC + S 20 0.5760 0.1681 3 ns 0.1828 LIVRQNAC + S 10 0.6820 0.2396 3 ns 0.3845 LIVRQNAC + S 1 1.0000 0.4098 3 LIV 40 1.2677 0.5786 3 ns 0.7802 LIV 30 1.3632 0.5837 3 ns 0.8368 LIV 20 1.3336 0.4754 3 ns 0.7964 LIV 10 1.3745 0.5427 3 ns 0.9132 LIV 1 1.0000 0.3186 3 LIVRQ 40 1.3042 0.4140 3 ns 0.7695 LIVRQ 30 1.2208 0.4403 3 ns 0.9036 LIVRQ 20 0.9915 0.3521 3 ns 0.9999 LIVRQ 10 0.9968 0.3907 3 ns 0.9999 LIVRQ 1 1.0000 0.4257 3 RQNAC 40 0.3220 0.0282 3 **** 0.0001 RQNAC 30 0.4353 0.0941 3 **** 0.0001 RQNAC 20 0.4629 0.0998 3 *** 0.0001 RQNAC 10 0.6513 0.0925 3 ** 0.0028 RQNAC 1 1.0000 0.1132 3 N-Acetyl Cysteine 40 0.4485 0.0587 3 *** 0.0002 N-Acetyl Cysteine 20 0.5413 0.1018 3 *** 0.0009 N-Acetyl Cysteine 10 0.6565 0.0502 3 ** 0.007 N-Acetyl Cysteine 5 0.8492 0.1515 3 ns 0.2738 N-Acetyl Cysteine 0 1.0000 0.1142 3

TABLE 61 Changes in MCP1 secretion for donor 3 upon administration of single amino acid compositions Fold Change MCP1 Secretion Normalized Per Cell Number Amino Acid Conc. Std. of Signif- Supplement (μM) Mean Deviation values icance P-value Valine 23420 1.2651 0.1295 3 ns 0.1126 Valine 11710 1.0204 0.1126 3 ns 0.9956 Valine 4684 1.0630 0.0878 3 ns 0.8999 Valine 234 1.0000 0.2008 3 Arginine 5440 0.7840 0.2753 3 ns 0.7069 Arginine 2720 0.8821 0.2249 3 ns 0.9264 Arginine 1088 0.9435 0.3221 3 ns 0.9903 Arginine 109 1.0000 0.3404 3 Glutamine 22484 0.6212 0.1952 3 ns 0.2465 Glutamine 11242 0.6106 0.2085 3 ns 0.226 Glutamine 3747 0.6036 0.2596 3 ns 0.2135 Glutamine 749 0.7048 0.2473 3 ns 0.4593 Glutamine 562 1.0000 0.2185 3 Isoleucine 6639 1.2084 0.1334 3 ns 0.284 Isoleucine 3320 1.2169 0.0589 3 ns 0.2565 Isoleucine 1328 1.5550 0.2070 3 ** 0.0038 Isoleucine 66 1.0000 0.1188 3 Leucine 15270 1.1808 0.2601 3 ns 0.5156 Leucine 7635 1.3054 0.1748 3 ns 0.1491 Leucine 3054 1.1479 0.0605 3 ns 0.6605 Leucine 153 1.0000 0.0784 3 N-Acetyl 10000 0.4485 0.0587 3 *** 0.0002 Cysteine N-Acetyl 5000 0.5413 0.1018 3 *** 0.0009 Cysteine N-Acetyl 2500 0.6565 0.0502 3 ** 0.007 Cysteine N-Acetyl 1000 0.8492 0.1515 3 ns 0.2738 Cysteine N-Acetyl 0 1.0000 0.1142 3 Cysteine

TABLE 62 Changes in MCP1 secretion for donor 4 upon administration of amino acid compositions Fold Change MCP1 Secretion Normalized Per Cell Number Conc. Std. of Amino Acid Supplement (X) Mean Deviation values Significance P-value LIVRQNAC 40 0.7791 0.0740 3 ns 0.1328 LIVRQNAC 30 0.6333 0.1114 3 * 0.0116 LIVRQNAC 20 0.6997 0.1013 3 * 0.0352 LIVRQNAC 10 0.8114 0.1271 3 ns 0.2216 LIVRQNAC 1 1.0000 0.1607 3 LIVRQNAC + G 40 0.6738 0.0979 3 * 0.0454 LIVRQNAC + G 30 0.7117 0.0783 3 ns 0.0794 LIVRQNAC + G 20 0.6735 0.1127 3 * 0.0452 LIVRQNAC + G 10 0.7682 0.0563 3 ns 0.1778 LIVRQNAC + G 1 1.0000 0.2452 3 LIVRQNAC + S 40 0.5780 0.0781 3 ** 0.0025 LIVRQNAC + S 30 0.5393 0.1185 3 ** 0.0013 LIVRQNAC + S 20 0.6487 0.0732 3 ** 0.0085 LIVRQNAC + S 10 0.6872 0.0118 3 * 0.017 LIVRQNAC + S 1 1.0000 0.1803 3 LIV 40 0.7010 0.1399 3 ** 0.0059 LIV 30 0.8883 0.0530 3 ns 0.3745 LIV 20 0.9284 0.0579 3 ns 0.7114 LIV 10 0.8663 0.0569 3 ns 0.2428 LIV 1 1.0000 0.0928 3 LIVRQ 40 1.2235 0.0592 3 ns 0.4365 LIVRQ 30 1.1653 0.0558 3 ns 0.6679 LIVRQ 20 0.8845 0.2698 3 ns 0.862 LIVRQ 10 1.0110 0.0738 3 ns 0.9999 LIVRQ 1 1.0000 0.3016 3 RQNAC 40 0.4312 0.0994 3 *** 0.0006 RQNAC 30 0.3910 0.0649 3 *** 0.0003 RQNAC 20 0.5579 0.2079 3 ** 0.0037 RQNAC 10 0.5545 0.0663 3 ** 0.0035 RQNAC 1 1.0000 0.0987 3 N-Acetyl Cysteine 40 0.5011 0.0756 3 *** 0.0001 N-Acetyl Cysteine 20 0.6728 0.1024 3 ** 0.003 N-Acetyl Cysteine 10 0.8033 0.1101 3 ns 0.058 N-Acetyl Cysteine 5 0.6437 0.0648 3 ** 0.0017 N-Acetyl Cysteine 0 1.0000 0.0673 3

TABLE 63 Changes in MCP1 secretion for donor 4 upon administration of single amino acid compositions Fold Change MCP1 Secretion Normalized Per Cell Number Amino Acid Conc. Std. of Signif- Supplement (μM) Mean Deviation values icance P-value Valine 23420 1.1525 0.0406 3 ns 0.9999 Valine 11710 1.1544 0.1743 3 ns 0.8877 Valine 4684 1.0942 0.0846 3 ns 0.3545 Valine 234 1.0000 0.1464 3 Arginine 5440 0.9456 0.0639 3 ns 0.9076 Arginine 2720 1.0446 0.0741 3 ns 0.9449 Arginine 1088 1.0453 0.1733 3 ns 0.9423 Arginine 109 1.0000 0.1486 3 Glutamine 22484 0.7039 0.0544 3 ** 0.0065 Glutamine 11242 0.7129 0.2237 3 ** 0.0077 Glutamine 3747 0.6639 0.0467 3 ** 0.0027 Glutamine 749 0.7782 0.0860 3 * 0.0452 Glutamine 562 1.0000 0.0709 6 Isoleucine 6639 0.9103 0.0536 3 ns 0.5597 Isoleucine 3320 0.8830 0.0872 3 ns 0.3538 Isoleucine 1328 1.3338 0.1099 3 ** 0.0044 Isoleucine 66 1.0000 0.0853 3 Leucine 15270 1.5745 0.0844 3 ns 0.1886 Leucine 7635 1.7129 0.6026 3 ns 0.0885 Leucine 3054 1.5342 0.1746 3 ns 0.2332 Leucine 153 1.0000 0.2040 3 N-Acetyl 10000 0.5011 0.0756 3 *** 0.0001 Cysteine N-Acetyl 5000 0.6728 0.1024 3 ** 0.003 Cysteine N-Acetyl 2500 0.8033 0.1101 3 ns 0.058 Cysteine N-Acetyl 1000 0.6437 0.0648 3 ** 0.0017 Cysteine N-Acetyl 0 1.0000 0.0673 3 Cysteine

IL-6 Cytokine Secretion

Tables 64-67 show per-cell normalized IL-6 cytokine secretion in primary human hepatic stellate cells from two donors as a fold change from the plasma amino acid background. Statistical significance calculated by one-way ANOVA with Dunnett's multiple comparison test within each treatment group. LIVRQNAC, LIVRQNAC+S and RQNAC significantly reduced IL-6 secretion in one of two donors. LIVRQNAC+G, LIVRQNAC+S and RQNAC decreased IL-6 secretion in both donors. LIV and LIVRQ did not have a significant impact on IL-6 secretion in either donor. Individually, valine, arginine, isoleucine, and leucine had no significant effect on IL-6 secretion. N-acetyl cysteine reduced IL-6 secretion in both donors but was only statistically significant in one of two donors. Glutamine significantly reduced IL-6 secretion in both donors.

TABLE 64 Changes in IL-6 cytokine secretion for donor 1 upon administration of amino acid compositions Fold Change IL-6 Secretion Normalized Per Cell Std. Number Amino Acid Supplement Conc. (X) Mean Deviation of values Significance P-value LIVRQNAC 40 0.4857 0.0915 3 *** 0.0004 LIVRQNAC 30 0.5667 0.0941 3 ** 0.0014 LIVRQNAC 20 0.6671 0.0431 3 ** 0.0088 LIVRQNAC 10 0.6579 0.1231 3 ** 0.0074 LIVRQNAC 1 1.0000 0.1361 3 LIVRQNAC + G 40 0.4995 0.1427 3 ns 0.0949 LIVRQNAC + G 30 0.5722 0.2185 3 ns 0.1679 LIVRQNAC + G 20 0.6185 0.1769 3 ns 0.2376 LIVRQNAC + G 10 0.7040 0.2809 3 ns 0.4276 LIVRQNAC + G 1 1.0000 0.3513 3 LIVRQNAC + S 40 0.5397 0.1569 3 * 0.0105 LIVRQNAC + S 30 0.5513 0.1190 3 * 0.0122 LIVRQNAC + S 20 0.6264 0.1593 3 * 0.0338 LIVRQNAC + S 10 0.6799 0.1218 3 ns 0.0703 LIVRQNAC + S 1 1.0000 0.1671 3 LIV 40 1.3536 0.4767 3 ns 0.6216 LIV 30 1.2423 0.3135 3 ns 0.8437 LIV 20 1.2321 0.4818 3 ns 0.8611 LIV 10 1.1421 0.3489 3 ns 0.9704 LIV 1 1.0000 0.1647 3 LIVRQ 40 0.8274 0.2003 3 ns 0.7863 LIVRQ 30 0.8880 0.2175 3 ns 0.938 LIVRQ 20 0.8468 0.1100 3 ns 0.8431 LIVRQ 10 0.9247 0.2696 3 ns 0.984 LIVRQ 1 1.0000 0.3311 3 RQNAC 40 0.3958 0.0947 3 * 0.0109 RQNAC 30 0.4433 0.1317 3 * 0.0177 RQNAC 20 0.4936 0.1079 3 * 0.0297 RQNAC 10 0.5729 0.1741 3 ns 0.0674 RQNAC 1 1.0000 0.3440 3 N-Acetyl Cysteine 40 0.5716 0.2306 3 ns 0.2067 N-Acetyl Cysteine 20 0.6121 0.1718 3 ns 0.2729 N-Acetyl Cysteine 10 0.7354 0.2816 3 ns 0.5703 N-Acetyl Cysteine 5 0.7141 0.2509 3 ns 0.5098 N-Acetyl Cysteine 0 1.0000 0.3472 3

TABLE 65 Changes in IL-6 cytokine secretion for donor 1 upon administration of single amino acid compositions Fold Change IL-6 Secretion Normalized Per Cell Number Amino Acid Conc. Std. of Signif- Supplement (μM) Mean Deviation values icance P-value Valine 23420 1.0404 0.2175 3 ns 0.9949 Valine 11710 0.9562 0.3332 3 ns 0.9935 Valine 4684 0.9790 0.1777 3 ns 0.9993 Valine 234 1.0000 0.2868 3 Arginine 5440 0.7776 0.1994 3 ns 0.6927 Arginine 2720 1.0231 0.4381 3 ns 0.9993 Arginine 1088 0.9828 0.2957 3 ns 0.9997 Arginine 109 1.0000 0.1728 3 Glutamine 22484 0.5138 0.0818 3 ** 0.0046 Glutamine 11242 0.5136 0.1189 3 ** 0.0046 Glutamine 3747 0.5460 0.0891 3 ** 0.0072 Glutamine 749 0.6320 0.1181 3 * 0.0249 Glutamine 562 1.0000 0.2226 3 Isoleucine 6639 1.0859 0.1489 3 ns 0.764 Isoleucine 3320 1.1156 0.0776 3 ns 0.5903 Isoleucine 1328 1.0233 0.1536 3 ns 0.9922 Isoleucine 66 1.0000 0.1276 3 Leucine 15270 1.0767 0.0246 3 ns 0.853 Leucine 7635 1.1215 0.0872 3 ns 0.6249 Leucine 3054 1.1762 0.2273 3 ns 0.3655 Leucine 153 1.0000 0.1535 3 N-Acetyl 10000 0.5716 0.2306 3 ns 0.2067 Cysteine N-Acetyl 5000 0.6121 0.1718 3 ns 0.2729 Cysteine N-Acetyl 2500 0.7354 0.2816 3 ns 0.5703 Cysteine N-Acetyl 1000 0.7141 0.2509 3 ns 0.5098 Cysteine N-Acetyl 0 1.0000 0.3472 3 Cysteine

TABLE 66 Changes in IL-6 cytokine secretion for donor 2 upon administration of amino acid compositions Fold Change IL-6 Secretion Normalized Per Cell Std. Number Amino Acid Supplement Conc. (X) Mean Deviation of values Significance P-value LIVRQNAC 40 0.9911 0.1150 3 ns 0.9998 LIVRQNAC 30 0.9560 0.0473 3 ns 0.9404 LIVRQNAC 20 1.0008 0.1450 3 ns 0.9999 LIVRQNAC 10 1.0845 0.0707 3 ns 0.6567 LIVRQNAC 1 1.0000 0.0553 3 LIVRQNAC + G 40 0.8055 0.1705 3 ns 0.4153 LIVRQNAC + G 30 0.8218 0.1567 3 ns 0.4855 LIVRQNAC + G 20 0.9236 0.1642 3 ns 0.9342 LIVRQNAC + G 10 1.1076 0.2097 3 ns 0.8216 LIVRQNAC + G 1 1.0000 0.0416 3 LIVRQNAC + S 40 0.9508 0.0933 3 ns 0.967 LIVRQNAC + S 30 0.8581 0.0364 3 ns 0.4836 LIVRQNAC + S 20 0.8289 0.0765 3 ns 0.3356 LIVRQNAC + S 10 0.8487 0.1018 3 ns 0.432 LIVRQNAC + S 1 1.0000 0.2312 3 LIV 40 0.9122 0.0773 3 ns 0.8233 LIV 30 1.0994 0.0987 3 ns 0.7586 LIV 20 1.0400 0.2330 3 ns 0.9857 LIV 10 0.9579 0.1077 3 ns 0.9828 LIV 1 1.0000 0.0540 3 LIVRQ 40 0.9327 0.0639 3 ns 0.8313 LIVRQ 30 0.8421 0.1125 3 ns 0.2361 LIVRQ 20 0.7871 0.0932 3 ns 0.0841 LIVRQ 10 0.8693 0.0750 3 ns 0.3744 LIVRQ 1 1.0000 0.1428 3 RQNAC 40 0.8711 0.0816 3 ns 0.5267 RQNAC 30 0.7460 0.1133 3 ns 0.0843 RQNAC 20 0.7838 0.0708 3 ns 0.1544 RQNAC 10 0.8781 0.1566 3 ns 0.5705 RQNAC 1 1.0000 0.1557 3 N-Acetyl Cysteine 40 0.7064 0.0418 3 ns 0.0508 N-Acetyl Cysteine 20 0.8111 0.1049 3 ns 0.2549 N-Acetyl Cysteine 10 0.9180 0.2230 3 ns 0.8353 N-Acetyl Cysteine 5 0.9161 0.1067 3 ns 0.8252 N-Acetyl Cysteine 0 1.0000 0.0632 3

TABLE 67 Changes in IL-6 cytokine secretion for donor 2 upon administration of single amino acid compositions Fold Change IL-6 Secretion Normalized Per Cell Number Amino Acid Conc. Std. of Signif- Supplement (μM) Mean Deviation values icance P-value Valine 23420 0.9015 0.0930 3 ns 0.4967 Valine 11710 0.9218 0.1179 3 ns 0.6516 Valine 4684 1.0383 0.1014 3 ns 0.9291 Valine 234 1.0000 0.0696 3 Arginine 5440 0.8895 0.0897 3 ns 0.547 Arginine 2720 0.9401 0.1611 3 ns 0.8654 Arginine 1088 0.9924 0.0692 3 ns 0.9996 Arginine 109 1.0000 0.1263 3 Glutamine 22484 0.5993 0.0611 3 **** 0.0001 Glutamine 11242 0.6478 0.0371 3 **** 0.0001 Glutamine 3747 0.7100 0.0356 3 *** 0.0003 Glutamine 749 0.7673 0.0222 3 ** 0.0017 Glutamine 562 1.0000 0.1027 6 Isoleucine 6639 1.1648 0.1125 3 ns 0.1448 Isoleucine 3320 0.9096 0.0916 3 ns 0.5304 Isoleucine 1328 1.1020 0.0987 3 ns 0.4446 Isoleucine 66 1.0000 0.0641 3 Leucine 15270 1.0183 0.1155 3 ns 0.9795 Leucine 7635 0.9574 0.0590 3 ns 0.8187 Leucine 3054 1.0011 0.0618 3 ns 0.9999 Leucine 153 1.0000 0.0277 3 N-Acetyl 10000 0.7064 0.0418 3 ns 0.0508 Cysteine N-Acetyl 5000 0.8111 0.1049 3 ns 0.2549 Cysteine N-Acetyl 2500 0.9180 0.2230 3 ns 0.8353 Cysteine N-Acetyl 1000 0.9161 0.1067 3 ns 0.8252 Cysteine N-Acetyl 0 1.0000 0.0632 3 Cysteine

Example 12: TGFβ1 Fibrogenic Gene Expression of Hepatic Stellate Cell

Primary human hepatic stellate cells were obtained from Samsara Sciences based on the following criteria for selecting donors: adult age (between 18 and 50 years), normal BMI (>18.5 and <25), and absence of confounding liver disease. Cells grown in Complete HSC Medium to ˜80% confluence in T75 or T150 flasks below passage 10 were seeded into sterile, collagen I coated, 96-well optical plastic microplates (ThermoScientific, 152036) at 6000 cells per well (˜1250 cells per cm2) and incubated overnight at 37° C., 5% CO2 in a humidified incubator in DMEM with 2% Fetal Bovine Serum and 1% Antibiotic-Antimycotic.

After the overnight incubation, plates were removed from the incubator and the medium was gently pipetted off and washed twice with 150 μL per well DPBS. The DPBS was removed and the pretreatment medium (±single amino acid dropout, 1×HMDB DMEM+1% Antibiotic-Antimycotic, 10 mM HEPES, ±supplemental amino acid dose; see experiment for medium composition) was applied to the cells at 150 μL per well. Plates were returned to the incubator for 10.5 hours.

After 10.5 hour pretreatment, the medium was removed from the cells, and the same pretreatment medium, now supplemented with 3 ng/mL TGFβ1, was applied. Each plate contained 3 ng/mL TGFβ1 in 1× human plasma amino acid (HMDB or PAA) concentration medium, 0 ng/mL in 1×HMDB, and 3 ng/mL TGFβ1+20 μM Silybin in 1×HMDB to serve as controls. Plates were then incubated for 24 hours at 37° C., 5% CO2.

After 24 hour stimulus, supernatant was removed and frozen at −80° C. in two separate aliquots. The cells were then washed with 125 μL per well Buffer FCW (FastLane Cell Multiplex NR Kit, Qiagen, 216713). The wash buffer was immediately removed and 50 μL of Cell Processing Mix (containing genomic DNA Wipeout buffer) was applied to lyse cells, incubating for 10 minutes at room temperature. RNA lysate was then transferred to 96-well qPCR plates, sealed, and gDNA was digested on thermal cycler at 75° C. for 5 minutes. RNA lysate was frozen at −80° C.

Each 20 μL one-step RT-qPCR reaction contained 4 μL of RNA lysate. Gene expression of Col1a1, Timp2, and Gapdh were multiplexed using the HEX, Cy5, and FAM fluorescent channels, respectively, with commercially available primer-probe mixes (the Human Col1a1 Primer-Probe Set, HEX; the Human Timp2 Primer-Probe Set, Cy5; and the Human Gapdh Primer-Probe Set, FAM from IDT). Gene expression was evaluated using the ΔΔCq method within each single amino acid dropout and supplementation by normalizing to its own 1×HMDB concentration.

Human Procollagen Iα1 was measured from the supernatant by ELISA (Human Pro-Collagen I alpha 1 DuoSet ELISA, R&D Systems) at 1/100 dilution in 1× Reagent Diluent (Reagent Ancillary Kit 2, R&D Systems).

Results Col1a1 Gene Expression

Tables 68, 69, 69-1, 69-2, 69-3, and 69-4 show the mean fold change in Col1a1 gene expression in primary human hepatic stellate cells from three different healthy donors. LIVRQNAC and LIVRQNAC+S showed significantly decreased Col1a1 gene expression in two of three donors. LIVRQNAC+G and RQNAC showed significantly decreased Col1a1 expression in all three donors. LIVRQ showed a significant change in Col1a1 gene expression in only one donor. LIV alone did not significantly change Col1a1 gene expression.

Each of leucine, isoleucine, valine, and arginine did not significantly change Col1a1 gene expression in any donor when the amino acid was administered alone. Glutamine decreased Col1a1 gene expression in two of three donors. N-acetyl cysteine significantly reduced Col1a1 gene expression in all three donors.

TABLE 68 Fold change of Col1a1 gene expression after administration of an amino acid composition, normalized to Gapdh expression in a first donor Col1a1 Fold Expression Relative to Control Std. Number Amino Acid Supplement Conc. (X) Mean Deviation of values P-value* Significance LIVRQNAC 40 0.91 0.08 4 ns 0.401 LIVRQNAC 30 0.87 0.10 4 ns 0.1073 LIVRQNAC 20 0.88 0.04 4 ns 0.1483 LIVRQNAC 10 0.90 0.08 4 ns 0.3035 LIVRQNAC 1 1.00 0.10 4 LIVRQNAC + G 40 0.73 0.15 4 ** 0.0053 LIVRQNAC + G 30 0.79 0.08 4 * 0.0252 LIVRQNAC + G 20 0.84 0.08 4 ns 0.1181 LIVRQNAC + G 10 0.79 0.11 4 * 0.0286 LIVRQNAC + G 1 1.00 0.03 4 LIVRQNAC + S 40 0.79 0.05 4 * 0.0325 LIVRQNAC + S 30 0.86 0.13 4 ns 0.1848 LIVRQNAC + S 20 0.96 0.10 4 ns 0.9287 LIVRQNAC + S 10 0.85 0.12 4 ns 0.1566 LIVRQNAC + S 1 1.00 0.10 4 LIV 40 0.93 0.03 4 ns 0.5561 LIV 30 1.04 0.07 4 ns 0.8872 LIV 20 1.04 0.09 4 ns 0.9069 LIV 10 1.05 0.10 4 ns 0.8156 LIV 1 1.00 0.07 4 LIVRQ 40 0.75 0.03 4 *** 0.001 LIVRQ 30 0.73 0.05 4 *** 0.0004 LIVRQ 20 0.80 0.03 4 ** 0.0054 LIVRQ 10 0.84 0.08 4 * 0.0208 LIVRQ 1 1.01 0.13 4 RQNAC 40 0.51 0.07 4 **** 0.0001 RQNAC 30 0.49 0.02 4 **** 0.0001 RQNAC 20 0.59 0.04 4 **** 0.0001 RQNAC 10 0.68 0.07 4 **** 0.0001 RQNAC 1 1.00 0.11 4 N-Acetyl Cysteine 40 0.76 0.06 4 ** 0.0011 N-Acetyl Cysteine 20 1.02 0.08 4 ns 0.9921 N-Acetyl Cysteine 10 1.07 0.08 4 ns 0.5517 N-Acetyl Cysteine 5 1.00 0.08 4 ns 0.9999 N-Acetyl Cysteine 0 1.00 0.06 4

TABLE 69 Fold change of Col1a1 gene expression after administration of a single amino acid composition, normalized to Gapdh expression in the first donor Col1a1 Fold Expression Relative to Control Conc. Std. Number Amino Acid Supplement (μM) Mean Deviation of values P-value* Significance Valine 23420 1.00 0.05 4 ns 0.9996 Valine 11710 1.09 0.17 4 ns 0.5528 Valine 4684 1.05 0.11 4 ns 0.8851 Valine 234 1.00 0.08 4 Arginine 5440 1.12 0.18 4 ns 0.2151 Arginine 2720 1.03 0.03 4 ns 0.9625 Arginine 1088 0.99 0.06 4 ns 0.9989 Arginine 109 1.00 0.03 4 Glutamine 22484 0.53 0.01 4 **** 0.0001 Glutamine 11242 0.62 0.05 4 **** 0.0001 Glutamine 3747 0.70 0.03 3 **** 0.0001 Glutamine 749 1.00 0.07 4 ns 0.9999 Glutamine 562 1.00 0.07 3 Isoleucine 6639 1.11 0.07 4 ns 0.7553 Isoleucine 3320 1.10 0.14 4 ns 0.7944 Isoleucine 1328 1.05 0.22 4 ns 0.9831 Isoleucine 66 1.01 0.21 4 Leucine 15270 0.99 0.10 4 ns 0.994 Leucine 7635 1.12 0.16 4 ns 0.5049 Leucine 3054 1.11 0.15 4 ns 0.5499 Leucine 153 1.00 0.11 4 N-Acetyl Cysteine 10000 0.76 0.06 4 ** 0.0011 N-Acetyl Cysteine 5000 1.02 0.08 4 ns 0.9921 N-Acetyl Cysteine 2500 1.07 0.08 4 ns 0.5517 N-Acetyl Cysteine 1000 1.00 0.08 4 ns 0.9999 N-Acetyl Cysteine 0 1.00 0.06 4

TABLE 69-1 Fold change of Col1a1 gene expression after administration of an amino acid composition, normalized to Gapdh expression in second donor. Col1a1 Fold Expression Relative to Control Std. Number Amino Acid Supplement Conc. (X) Mean Deviation of values P-value* Significance LIVRQNAC 40 0.72 0.05 4 **** 0.0001 LIVRQNAC 30 0.72 0.02 4 **** 0.0001 LIVRQNAC 20 0.70 0.03 4 **** 0.0001 LIVRQNAC 10 0.71 0.08 4 **** 0.0001 LIVRQNAC 1 1.00 0.02 4 LIVRQNAC + G 40 0.60 0.09 4 **** 0.0001 LIVRQNAC + G 30 0.68 0.07 4 *** 0.0001 LIVRQNAC + G 20 0.71 0.09 4 *** 0.0003 LIVRQNAC + G 10 0.69 0.06 4 *** 0.0002 LIVRQNAC + G 1 1.00 0.07 4 LIVRQNAC + S 40 0.66 0.02 4 **** 0.0001 LIVRQNAC + S 30 0.69 0.06 4 **** 0.0001 LIVRQNAC + S 20 0.76 0.05 4 *** 0.0002 LIVRQNAC + S 10 0.77 0.04 4 *** 0.0003 LIVRQNAC + S 1 1.00 0.11 4 LIV 40 1.20 0.21 4 ns 0.1032 LIV 30 1.10 0.09 4 ns 0.6074 LIV 20 1.10 0.04 4 ns 0.6031 LIV 10 1.02 0.08 4 ns 0.9981 LIV 1 1.00 0.11 4 LIVRQ 40 1.23 0.13 4 ns 0.1945 LIVRQ 30 1.12 0.13 4 ns 0.7176 LIVRQ 20 1.08 0.24 4 ns 0.8874 LIVRQ 10 1.14 0.16 4 ns 0.5632 LIVRQ 1 1.00 0.11 4 RQNAC 40 0.54 0.03 4 **** 0.0001 RQNAC 30 0.55 0.06 4 **** 0.0001 RQNAC 20 0.58 0.04 4 **** 0.0001 RQNAC 10 0.73 0.04 4 *** 0.0007 RQNAC 1 1.01 0.16 4 N-Acetyl Cysteine 40 0.57 0.06 4 **** 0.0001 N-Acetyl Cysteine 20 0.69 0.06 4 **** 0.0001 N-Acetyl Cysteine 10 0.69 0.09 4 *** 0.0001 N-Acetyl Cysteine 5 0.69 0.05 4 *** 0.0001 N-Acetyl Cysteine 0 1.00 0.10 4

TABLE 69-2 Fold change of Col1a1 gene expression after administration of a single amino acid composition, normalized to Gapdh expression in second donor. Col1a1 Fold Expression Relative to Control Number Amino Acid Conc. Std. of Signif- Supplement (μM) Mean Deviation values P-value* icance Valine 23420 1.05 0.03 4 ns 0.9194 Valine 11710 0.98 0.11 4 ns 0.9827 Valine 4684 1.05 0.18 4 ns 0.8893 Valine 234 1.00 0.11 4 Arginine 5440 1.15 0.10 4 ns 0.2773 Arginine 2720 1.15 0.14 4 ns 0.2759 Arginine 1088 0.99 0.15 4 ns 0.9938 Arginine 109 1.00 0.12 4 Glutamine 22484 0.86 0.07 4 ns 0.1411 Glutamine 11242 0.91 0.09 4 ns 0.4365 Glutamine 3747 1.04 0.14 4 ns 0.9811 Glutamine 749 1.02 0.13 4 ns 0.9988 Glutamine 562 1.01 0.12 8 Isoleucine 6639 1.03 0.07 4 ns 0.8931 Isoleucine 3320 0.99 0.08 4 ns 0.9841 Isoleucine 1328 0.97 0.10 4 ns 0.9157 Isoleucine 66 1.00 0.02 4 Leucine 15270 1.13 0.14 4 ns 0.0811 Leucine 7635 1.05 0.05 4 ns 0.7277 Leucine 3054 1.06 0.03 4 ns 0.5342 Leucine 153 1.00 0.03 4 N-Acetyl 10000 0.57 0.06 4 **** 0.0001 Cysteine N-Acetyl 5000 0.69 0.06 4 **** 0.0001 Cysteine N-Acetyl 2500 0.69 0.09 4 *** 0.0001 Cysteine N-Acetyl 1000 0.69 0.05 4 *** 0.0001 Cysteine N-Acetyl 0 1.00 0.10 4 Cysteine

TABLE 69-3 Fold change of Col1a1 gene expression after administration of an amino acid composition, normalized to Gapdh expression in third donor. Col1a1 Fold Expression Relative to Control Std. Number Amino Acid Supplement Conc. (X) Mean Deviation of values P-value* Significance LIVRQNAC 40 0.81 0.09 4 ** 0.008 LIVRQNAC 30 0.70 0.06 4 *** 0.0001 LIVRQNAC 20 0.79 0.08 4 ** 0.0035 LIVRQNAC 10 0.79 0.07 4 ** 0.0039 LIVRQNAC 1 1.00 0.06 4 LIVRQNAC + G 40 0.63 0.10 4 *** 0.0002 LIVRQNAC + G 30 0.64 0.02 4 *** 0.0003 LIVRQNAC + G 20 0.75 0.14 4 ** 0.005 LIVRQNAC + G 10 0.71 0.11 4 ** 0.0017 LIVRQNAC + G 1 1.00 0.03 4 LIVRQNAC + S 40 0.79 0.11 4 * 0.0316 LIVRQNAC + S 30 0.79 0.04 4 * 0.0309 LIVRQNAC + S 20 0.77 0.09 4 * 0.0208 LIVRQNAC + S 10 0.85 0.09 4 ns 0.1434 LIVRQNAC + S 1 1.01 0.16 4 LIV 40 1.00 0.16 4 ns 0.9999 LIV 30 0.94 0.16 4 ns 0.8685 LIV 20 1.08 0.08 4 ns 0.6767 LIV 10 0.93 0.04 4 ns 0.7713 LIV 1 1.00 0.05 4 LIVRQ 40 1.00 0.05 4 ns 0.9999 LIVRQ 30 1.07 0.13 4 ns 0.8753 LIVRQ 20 1.10 0.13 4 ns 0.6983 LIVRQ 10 1.05 0.21 4 ns 0.9641 LIVRQ 1 1.00 0.07 4 RQNAC 40 0.64 0.05 4 *** 0.0003 RQNAC 30 0.70 0.13 4 ** 0.0018 RQNAC 20 0.66 0.05 4 *** 0.0005 RQNAC 10 0.87 0.15 4 ns 0.2175 RQNAC 1 1.00 0.04 4 N-Acetyl Cysteine 40 0.62 0.01 4 *** 0.0005 N-Acetyl Cysteine 20 0.73 0.10 4 ** 0.0083 N-Acetyl Cysteine 10 0.82 0.09 4 ns 0.0909 N-Acetyl Cysteine 5 0.91 0.12 4 ns 0.4954 N-Acetyl Cysteine 0 1.01 0.16 4

TABLE 69-4 Fold change of Col1a1 gene expression after administration of a single amino acid composition, normalized to Gapdh expression in second donor. Col1a1 Fold Expression Relative to Control Number Amino Acid Conc. Std. of Signif- Supplement (μM) Mean Deviation values P-value* icance Valine 23420 1.13 0.12 4 ns 0.7199 Valine 11710 1.27 0.31 4 ns 0.1735 Valine 4684 1.22 0.16 4 ns 0.3247 Valine 234 1.01 0.13 4 Arginine 5440 1.02 0.09 4 ns 0.9702 Arginine 2720 0.99 0.09 4 ns 0.9973 Arginine 1088 0.95 0.02 4 ns 0.5384 Arginine 109 1.00 0.05 4 Glutamine 22484 0.81 0.11 4 * 0.0113 Glutamine 11242 0.81 0.11 4 ** 0.0087 Glutamine 3747 1.00 0.03 4 ns 0.9999 Glutamine 749 0.96 0.07 4 ns 0.8697 Glutamine 562 1.00 0.10 8 Isoleucine 6639 1.03 0.04 4 ns 0.9974 Isoleucine 3320 0.94 0.13 4 ns 0.8329 Isoleucine 1328 0.94 0.17 4 ns 0.7947 Isoleucine 66 1.02 0.20 4 Leucine 15270 1.07 0.12 4 ns 0.9535 Leucine 7635 1.00 0.16 4 ns 0.998 Leucine 3054 1.08 0.23 4 ns 0.9185 Leucine 153 1.01 0.19 4 N-Acetyl 10000 0.62 0.01 4 *** 0.0005 Cysteine N-Acetyl 5000 0.73 0.10 4 ** 0.0083 Cysteine N-Acetyl 2500 0.82 0.09 4 ns 0.0909 Cysteine N-Acetyl 1000 0.91 0.12 4 ns 0.4954 Cysteine N-Acetyl 0 1.01 0.16 4 Cysteine

Procollagen Iα1 Secretion

Tables 70, 71, 71-1, 71-2, 71-3, and 71-4 show the fold change in procollagen Iα1 in primary human hepatic stellate cells from three different healthy donors normalized to their respective baseline amino acid conditions. Statistical significance calculated by one-way ANOVA with Dunnett's multiple comparison test within each treatment group. The combination LIV significantly increased procollagen Iα1 secretion in all three donors. The addition of arginine (R) and glutamine (Q) to a combination of LIV counteracted the profibrogenic effect of LIV alone. LIVRQNAC, LIVRQNAC+G, LIVRQNAC+S and RQNAC significantly decreased procollagen Iα1 secretion in all three donors. Individually, N-acetyl cysteine was shown to significantly decrease procollagen Iα1 secretion in two of the three donors. Valine significantly increased procollagen Iα1 secretion in only one of two donors, while isoleucine and arginine significantly increased procollagen Iα1 secretion in two of three donors. In other words, glutamine administered individually did not have a significant impact on procollagen Iα1 secretion. As such, the reduction of the profibrogenic effect of LIV with arginine and glutamine relative to that of LIV alone would not have been expected based on the effect of individual amino acid treatments.

TABLE 70 Fold change of procollagen 1α1 secretion after administration of an amino acid composition in a first donor Procollagen Iα1 Secretion (Fold Change of 1X) Std. Number Amino Acid Supplement Conc. (X) Mean Deviation of values P-value* Significance LIVRQNAC 40 0.6283 0.0585 3 *** 0.0001 LIVRQNAC 30 0.5975 0.0709 3 **** 0.0001 LIVRQNAC 20 0.6504 0.0622 4 *** 0.0001 LIVRQNAC 10 0.8287 0.0936 4 * 0.0277 LIVRQNAC 1 1.0000 0.0908 4 LIVRQNAC + G 40 0.5288 0.0402 3 *** 0.0006 LIVRQNAC + G 30 0.6297 0.0200 3 ** 0.0042 LIVRQNAC + G 20 0.5926 0.0634 4 ** 0.001 LIVRQNAC + G 10 0.7404 0.0920 4 * 0.0267 LIVRQNAC + G 1 1.0000 0.2151 4 LIVRQNAC + S 40 0.5900 0.0450 3 *** 0.0003 LIVRQNAC + S 30 0.5562 0.1242 3 *** 0.0002 LIVRQNAC + S 20 0.6844 0.0638 3 ** 0.0022 LIVRQNAC + S 10 0.7003 0.0946 3 ** 0.0032 LIVRQNAC + S 1 1.0000 0.0311 3 LIV 40 1.3017 0.1474 3 ns 0.0518 LIV 30 1.3358 0.1922 3 * 0.0305 LIV 20 1.2592 0.0747 3 ns 0.0997 LIV 10 1.0149 0.1089 3 ns 0.9997 LIV 1 1.0000 0.0828 3 LIVRQ 40 1.0070 0.1716 3 ns 0.9999 LIVRQ 30 1.0190 0.1103 3 ns 0.9983 LIVRQ 20 1.1403 0.0516 3 ns 0.3875 LIVRQ 10 1.0454 0.0908 3 ns 0.9609 LIVRQ 1 1.0000 0.0935 3 RQNAC 40 0.3622 0.0166 3 **** 0.0001 RQNAC 30 0.4232 0.0819 3 **** 0.0001 RQNAC 20 0.5819 0.0574 3 *** 0.0001 RQNAC 10 0.8181 0.0703 3 * 0.0313 RQNAC 1 1.0000 0.0967 3 N-Acetyl Cysteine 40 0.5076 0.0154 3 **** 0.0001 N-Acetyl Cysteine 20 0.6593 0.0914 3 *** 0.0003 N-Acetyl Cysteine 10 0.7939 0.0715 3 ** 0.01 N-Acetyl Cysteine 5 0.9175 0.0519 3 ns 0.3855 N-Acetyl Cysteine 0 1.0000 0.0686 3

TABLE 71 Fold change of procollagen 1α1 secretion after administration of a single amino acid composition in the first donor Procollagen Iα1 Secretion (Fold Change of 1X) Conc. Std. Number Amino Acid Supplement (μM) Mean Deviation of values P-value* Significance Valine 23420 1.2139 0.0544 3 ns 0.1392 Valine 11710 1.2069 0.0881 3 ns 0.155 Valine 4684 1.1203 0.1908 3 ns 0.5111 Valine 234 1.0000 0.1389 4 Arginine 5440 1.0646 0.0939 3 ns 0.4155 Arginine 2720 1.1757 0.0466 3 * 0.01 Arginine 1088 1.0291 0.0615 4 ns 0.8428 Arginine 109 1.0000 0.0389 4 Glutamine 22484 1.0564 0.1293 3 ns 0.8468 Glutamine 11242 1.0888 0.0261 3 ns 0.5648 Glutamine 3747 1.0757 0.1003 4 ns 0.6356 Glutamine 749 0.9790 0.0836 4 ns 0.993 Glutamine 562 1.0000 0.0596 3 Isoleucine 6639 1.2144 0.1129 3 ns 0.0537 Isoleucine 3320 1.1366 0.0938 3 ns 0.2411 Isoleucine 1328 0.9229 0.0614 3 ns 0.6321 Isoleucine 66 1.0000 0.0953 3 Leucine 15270 1.1710 0.1043 3 ns 0.094 Leucine 7635 1.0915 0.0832 3 ns 0.4736 Leucine 3054 1.1410 0.1245 4 ns 0.1424 Leucine 153 1.0000 0.0481 4

TABLE 71-1 Fold change of procollagen 1α1 secretion after administration of an amino acid composition in the second donor Procollagen Iα1 Secretion (Fold Change of 1X) Std. Number Amino Acid Supplement Conc. (X) Mean Deviation of values P-value* Significance LIVRQNAC 40 0.7465 0.0551 3 ** 0.0041 LIVRQNAC 30 0.6829 0.0991 3 *** 0.0007 LIVRQNAC 20 0.6922 0.0281 4 *** 0.0004 LIVRQNAC 10 0.7879 0.0748 4 ** 0.0085 LIVRQNAC 1 1.0000 0.1141 4 LIVRQNAC + G 40 0.6372 0.0267 3 **** 0.0001 LIVRQNAC + G 30 0.7347 0.0324 3 **** 0.0001 LIVRQNAC + G 20 0.6716 0.0552 4 **** 0.0001 LIVRQNAC + G 10 0.7823 0.0579 4 *** 0.0001 LIVRQNAC + G 1 1.0000 0.0580 4 LIVRQNAC + S 40 0.8756 0.0372 3 ns 0.1229 LIVRQNAC + S 30 0.7340 0.0432 3 ** 0.0019 LIVRQNAC + S 20 0.7405 0.0491 3 ** 0.0022 LIVRQNAC + S 10 0.7472 0.0710 3 ** 0.0027 LIVRQNAC + S 1 1.0000 0.1031 3 LIV 40 1.4409 0.0697 3 **** 0.0001 LIV 30 1.3679 0.0156 3 *** 0.0001 LIV 20 1.3418 0.1090 3 *** 0.0002 LIV 10 1.2176 0.0343 3 ** 0.0057 LIV 1 1.0000 0.0396 3 LIVRQ 40 0.9851 0.0534 3 ns 0.9965 LIVRQ 30 1.0185 0.0735 3 ns 0.9921 LIVRQ 20 0.9212 0.0215 3 ns 0.4893 LIVRQ 10 0.9558 0.0580 3 ns 0.8556 LIVRQ 1 1.0000 0.1134 3 RQNAC 40 0.6363 0.0432 3 *** 0.0002 RQNAC 30 0.6154 0.0196 3 *** 0.0001 RQNAC 20 0.7060 0.0851 3 *** 0.0009 RQNAC 10 0.8385 0.0248 3 * 0.041 RQNAC 1 1.0000 0.1071 3 N-Acetyl Cysteine 40 0.8383 0.0378 3 ns 0.4053 N-Acetyl Cysteine 20 0.7378 0.1347 3 ns 0.1002 N-Acetyl Cysteine 10 0.8877 0.2282 3 ns 0.6842 N-Acetyl Cysteine 5 0.8387 0.0832 3 ns 0.407 N-Acetyl Cysteine 0 1.0000 0.0808 3

TABLE 71-2 Fold change of procollagen 1α1 secretion after administration of a single amino acid composition in the second donor Procollagen Iα1 Secretion (Fold Change of 1X) Conc. Std. Number Amino Acid Supplement (μM) Mean Deviation of values P-value* Significance Valine 23420 1.3068 0.0963 3 ** 0.0019 Valine 11710 1.2877 0.1122 3 ** 0.0029 Valine 4684 1.2865 0.0717 4 ** 0.0018 Valine 234 1.0000 0.0589 4 Arginine 5440 1.1304 0.0187 3 ns 0.0937 Arginine 2720 1.0722 0.0791 3 ns 0.4483 Arginine 1088 1.0126 0.0822 4 ns 0.989 Arginine 109 1.0000 0.0778 4 Glutamine 22484 0.7143 0.0566 3 ** 0.0058 Glutamine 11242 0.7080 0.0246 3 ** 0.005 Glutamine 3747 0.7541 0.0860 4 * 0.0102 Glutamine 749 0.9191 0.1171 4 ns 0.5776 Glutamine 562 1.0000 0.1003 3 Isoleucine 6639 1.5423 0.1489 3 ** 0.006 Isoleucine 3320 1.4940 0.0238 3 * 0.0102 Isoleucine 1328 1.4811 0.2307 3 * 0.0117 Isoleucine 66 1.0000 0.1264 3 Leucine 15270 0.9518 0.0406 3 ns 0.9292 Leucine 7635 1.2628 0.1763 3 ns 0.0607 Leucine 3054 1.0781 0.1735 4 ns 0.7374 Leucine 153 1.0000 0.0681 4

TABLE 71-3 Fold change of procollagen 1α1 secretion after administration of an amino acid composition in the third donor Procollagen Iα1 Secretion (Fold Change of 1X) Std. Number Amino Acid Supplement Conc. (X) Mean Deviation of values P-value* Significance LIVRQNAC 40 0.9052 0.0344 3 ns 0.5685 LIVRQNAC 30 0.7456 0.0895 3 * 0.0192 LIVRQNAC 20 0.7817 0.0680 4 * 0.03 LIVRQNAC 10 0.9774 0.1451 4 ns 0.9927 LIVRQNAC 1 1.0000 0.1116 4 LIVRQNAC + G 40 0.7040 0.0080 3 ** 0.002 LIVRQNAC + G 30 0.6249 0.0819 3 *** 0.0003 LIVRQNAC + G 20 0.6863 0.1334 4 *** 0.0006 LIVRQNAC + G 10 1.0068 0.0642 4 ns 0.9998 LIVRQNAC + G 1 1.0000 0.0724 4 LIVRQNAC + S 40 0.9190 0.0772 3 ns 0.3351 LIVRQNAC + S 30 0.8107 0.0596 3 * 0.0101 LIVRQNAC + S 20 0.8878 0.0129 3 ns 0.1296 LIVRQNAC + S 10 0.9814 0.0458 3 ns 0.9852 LIVRQNAC + S 1 1.0000 0.0780 3 LIV 40 1.3233 0.0667 3 ** 0.0024 LIV 30 1.2510 0.1070 3 * 0.0125 LIV 20 1.2702 0.0639 3 ** 0.0079 LIV 10 1.1912 0.1049 3 ns 0.0532 LIV 1 1.0000 0.0521 3 LIVRQ 40 1.2020 0.1119 3 ns 0.1081 LIVRQ 30 1.1380 0.0955 3 ns 0.3407 LIVRQ 20 0.9489 0.1179 3 ns 0.9263 LIVRQ 10 1.0786 0.0764 3 ns 0.7564 LIVRQ 1 1.0000 0.1056 3 RQNAC 40 0.6590 0.0860 3 ** 0.0012 RQNAC 30 0.6708 0.0407 3 ** 0.0016 RQNAC 20 0.9135 0.1192 3 ns 0.5063 RQNAC 10 0.8783 0.0515 3 ns 0.245 RQNAC 1 1.0000 0.0740 3 N-Acetyl Cysteine 40 0.6962 0.0189 3 * 0.0125 N-Acetyl Cysteine 20 0.8521 0.0709 3 ns 0.2666 N-Acetyl Cysteine 10 0.9391 0.1250 3 ns 0.8641 N-Acetyl Cysteine 5 1.0897 0.1245 3 ns 0.6511 N-Acetyl Cysteine 0 1.0000 0.1133 3

TABLE 71-4 Fold change of procollagen 1α1 secretion after administration of a single amino acid composition in the third donor Procollagen Iα1 Secretion (Fold Change of 1X) Conc. Std. Number Amino Acid Supplement (μM) Mean Deviation of values P-value* Significance Valine 23420 1.1139 0.1077 3 ns 0.5315 Valine 11710 1.0498 0.1773 3 ns 0.918 Valine 4684 1.0428 0.1036 4 ns 0.9323 Valine 234 1.0000 0.1203 4 Arginine 5440 1.2125 0.0862 3 * 0.0112 Arginine 2720 1.1314 0.0820 3 ns 0.1114 Arginine 1088 1.0623 0.0629 4 ns 0.5378 Arginine 109 1.0000 0.0760 4 Glutamine 22484 1.0121 0.0730 3 ns 0.9989 Glutamine 11242 1.1204 0.1056 3 ns 0.2356 Glutamine 3747 0.9734 0.0900 4 ns 0.9747 Glutamine 749 1.0317 0.0644 4 ns 0.9538 Glutamine 562 1.0000 0.0447 3 Isoleucine 6639 1.4465 0.0958 3 ** 0.0014 Isoleucine 3320 1.2703 0.0352 3 * 0.024 Isoleucine 1328 1.2687 0.0374 3 * 0.0247 Isoleucine 66 1.0000 0.1629 3 Leucine 15270 0.9892 0.0260 3 ns 0.9979 Leucine 7635 1.2027 0.0693 3 ns 0.0638 Leucine 3054 1.1399 0.1385 4 ns 0.1844 Leucine 153 1.0000 0.1077 4

Example 13: Cytokine Secretion in Primary Human Macrophages

Isolation of Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cell (PBMC) Unpurified buffy coats (Research Blood Components) were carefully poured into 50 mL centrifuge tubes and diluted with room temperature Dulbecco's Phosphate Buffered Saline (dPBS) with Calcium and Magnesium (Gibco). Diluted buffy coats were further divided into four total 50 mL centrifuge tubes at 20 mL per tube. Lymphocyte Separation Medium (Corning) was carefully pipetted to the bottom of each centrifuge tube. Mixtures were centrifuged at 850×g for 32 minutes at 20° C. with 0 deceleration and acceleration.

The PBMC layer was separated from other components after centrifugation and added to new 50 mL centrifuge tube containing 25 mL dPBS. Total volume was brought up to 50 mL with dPBS and centrifuged at 600×g for 10 minutes at 20° C. with acceleration of 9, deceleration of 5. Supernatant was carefully removed from cell pellets. The cell pellets were resuspended using 10 mL dPBS. Total volume was then brought up to 50 mL using dPBS and centrifuged at 450×g for 5 min at 20° C. with acceleration of 9, deceleration of 9. The supernatant removal and cell pellet resuspension was repeated again.

The supernatant was then carefully removed from cell pellets. Cell pellets were resuspended in 10 mL dPBS without calcium or magnesium and filtered through a 70 uM cell strainer. The total PBMC number was determined using a Cellometer K2 automated cell counter. A total of 5E6 cells were saved for flow cytometric analysis. Remaining cells were centrifuged at 490×g for 5 minutes at 20° C. with acceleration of 9, deceleration of 9.

CD14+ Cell Selection

CD14+ cells were selected using EasySep™ Human CD14 Positive Selection Kit II (STEMCELL Technologies). Cells were resuspended in cold EasySep™ Buffer (STEMCELL Technologies) at 1×10⁸ cells/mL. A total of 100 uL/mL EasySep™ Human CD14 Positive Selection Cocktail II was added to the cell suspension, mixed, and incubated at room temperature for 10 minutes. A total of 100 uL/mL RapidSpheres were added to the mixture and incubated at room temperature for 3 minutes after mixing, then RoboSep buffer was added to bring up the total volume to 10 mL. The mixture in a 15 mL tube was placed in magnet and incubated at room temperature for 3 minutes. Supernatant was discarded and 10 mL fresh EasySep™ buffer was added to 15 mL tube. The addition of RoboSep buffer, mixing, and discarding of supernatant was was repeated two more times.

Negative and positive fractions were centrifuged at 490×g for 5 minutes at 20° C. with acceleration of 9, deceleration of 9, and resuspended in DMEM (Gibco) and 10% Heat Inactivated Fetal Bovine Serum (Atlanta Bio) and Penicillin/Streptomycin. Cells were counted and centrifuged again at 490×g for 5 minutes at 20° C. with acceleration of 9, deceleration of 9. After centrifugation, cell were resuspended in DMEM (Gibco) and 10% Heat Inactivated Fetal Bovine Serum (Atlanta Bio) and Penicillin/Streptomycin containing 500 U/mL GM- and plated at 1-2×10⁶ cells/mL on 10 cm tissue culture plates. Cells were kept in 37° C., 5% CO2 in between feedings/harvest.

CD14+Cell Feeding

Cells were fed every 3-4 days by removing media and unattached cells, centrifuging at 490×g for 5 minutes at 20 C with acceleration of 9, deceleration of 9, and resuspending in fresh DMEM (Gibco) and 10% Heat Inactivated Fetal Bovine Serum (Atlanta Bio) and Penicillin/Streptomycincontaining 500 U/mL GM-CSF. Resuspended cells were seeded back onto 10 cm tissue culture plates and incubated at 37° C., 5% CO2.

Macrophage Harvest

After complete cell attachment, culture supernatant was removed and cultures were washed 1× with 5 mL PBS. A total of 3 mL room temperature Cellstripper was added and cultures were incubated at 37° C., 5% CO2 for approximately 10 minutes until cells were rounded and beginning to detach. Cell scraper was used to completely detach cells from plate. Collected cell were spun down at 490 g for 5 min at room temperature and resuspended in 10% DMSO in Heat Inactivated Fetal Bovine Serum and immediately frozen in −80 C.

Screen

Primary human PMBC derived macrophages were seeded on day 0 at 3.0E4 cells per well in 96-well microplates (ThermoFisher) in Dulbecco's Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM) (Gibco) supplemented with penicillin-streptomycin (Hyclone) and 10% heat inactivated fetal bovine serum (HI-FBS) (Atlanta Bio) and incubated overnight at 37° C., 5% CO2. On day 1, cells were washed once with 150 uL per well DPBS (Gibco) and treated with 75 uL of:

-   -   a. Amino acid free DMEM (US Biologicals) containing a defined         custom amino acid concentration based on the mean physiological         concentrations in blood based on values published in the Human         Metabolome Database (HMDB), with 6 mM glucose, 1 mM sodium         pyruvate, 10 mM HEPES, 0.2% primocin (InVivoGen); or     -   b. The same medium described above with one amino acid at         various concentrations including complete dropout.

On day 2, cells were treated with 75 uL of the same mediums described above supplemented with 0.30 ng/mL lipopolysaccharide (LPS) (Sigma) for a final concentration of 0.15 ng/mL LPS. Control wells were treated with 1 uM BX-795 (Tocis), 1 uM TAK242 (Sigma), 0.15 ng/mL LPS, or phosphate buffered saline (PBS).

On day 3, the supernatant was collected and immediately frozen in −80° C. freezer. Cells were washed once with 150 uL DPBS and viability was assessed using the WST-8 Cell Proliferation Cytotoxicity Assay (Dojindo). Following the assay, cells were washed twice with 150 uL PBS and fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde for 5 min followed by two additional washes with 150 uL PBS. Protein levels in supernatant samples were analyzed by ELISA for IL-6 and TNFa using commercially available kits (R&D Systems) according to manufacturer-supplied protocols. Results are shown in Tables 71-5 through 71-10 below.

TABLE 71-5 IL-6 Measurements: Donor 1 Donor 1 IL-6 Measurements Std. Number Amino Acid Supplement Mean Deviation of values P-value* Significance Conc. (X) LIVRQNAC 40 −619.787 114.1592 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQNAC 30 −525.849 63.87122 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQNAC 20 −290.199 33.5584 3 0.0092 ** LIVRQNAC 10 51.81434 183.3933 3 0.9479 ns LIVRQNAC 1 0 148.7761 3 na na LIVRQNAC + G 40 −1099.11 44.1139 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQNAC + G 30 −903.836 107.7113 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQNAC + G 20 −616.626 114.7826 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQNAC + G 10 −367.918 98.44611 3 0.0007 *** LIVRQNAC + G 1 0 172.9553 3 na na LIVRQNAC + S 40 −968.997 90.53282 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQNAC + S 30 −798.326 52.89122 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQNAC + S 20 −506.804 63.85224 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQNAC + S 10 −243.259 114.742 3 0.0365 * LIVRQNAC + S 1 0 259.8506 3 na na LIV 40 4.918642 62.7077 3 0.9999 ns LIV 30 86.01907 128.1151 3 0.7604 ns LIV 20 112.1501 83.62436 3 0.564  ns LIV 10 54.22668 63.10515 3 0.9392 ns LIV 1 0 75.98804 3 na na LIVRQ 40 322.0706 73.87715 3 0.0033 ** LIVRQ 30 297.8004 34.60168 3 0.0072 ** LIVRQ 20 604.021 203.8836 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQ 10 289.1798 57.78952 3 0.0095 ** LIVRQ 1 0 93.58494 3 na na RQNAC 40 −911.011 12.65475 3 0.0001 **** RQNAC 30 −766.912 26.23659 3 0.0001 **** RQNAC 20 −511.403 32.15983 3 0.0001 **** RQNAC 10 −201.63 6.477522 3 0.1054 ns RQNAC 1 0 174.9658 3 na na N-Acetyl Cysteine 40 −914.194 56.77271 3 0.0001 **** N-Acetyl Cysteine 20 −553.802 85.27013 3 0.0001 **** N-Acetyl Cysteine 10 −121.142 53.05191 3 0.4973 ns N-Acetyl Cysteine 5 308.1772 263.4651 3 0.0052 ** N-Acetyl Cysteine 0 0 45.08485 3 na na Conc. (μM) Valine 23420 −106.268 155.3559 3 0.7885 ns Valine 11710 −97.25 77.26313 3 0.8339 ns Valine 4684 −85.9843 74.99317 3 0.8841 ns Valine 234 0 124.8497 3 na na Arginine 5440 357.4394 154.8508 3 0.0159 * Arginine 2720 −186.57 85.86105 3 0.3477 ns Arginine 1088 −181.36 131.6475 3 0.3722 ns Arginine 109 0 282.0306 3 na na Glutamine 22484 440.1437 114.443 3 0.0022 ** Glutamine 11242 397.1745 23.36272 3 0.0064 ** Glutamine 3747 291.5443 81.30853 3 0.0623 ns Glutamine 749 0 73.06692 3 na na Isoleucine 6639 −218.332 146.5098 3 0.221  ns Isoleucine 3320 −15.8843 89.88616 3 0.9998 ns Isoleucine 1328 25.98372 323.6109 3 0.9984 ns Isoleucine 66 0 48.21125 3 na na Leucine 15270 84.46122 68.15253 3 0.8902 ns Leucine 7635 −69.9873 99.00843 3 0.9398 ns Leucine 3054 244.9743 355.6551 3 0.1442 ns Leucine 153 0 61.85589 3 na na Treatment with LIVRQNAC, LIVRQNAC+G, LIVRQNAC+S, RQNAC, and NAC significantly reduced LPS-induced IL-6 secretion in primary human monocyte-derived macrophages. Treatment with LIVRQ significantly increased IL-6 secretion, while LIV had no effect. Arginine and glutamine administered alone increased IL-6 secretion while other amino acids alone did not effect IL-6 secretion. Two Way ANOVA Dunnett Multiple Comparisons was performed for statistical analysis. Mean values represented as baseline subtracted values.

TABLE 71-6 IL-6 Measurements: Donor 2 Donor 2 IL-6 Measurements Std. Number Amino Acid Supplement Mean Deviation of values P-value* Significance Conc. (X) LIVRQNAC 40 −27.1916 1.853569 3 0.0003 *** LIVRQNAC 30 −21.5766 1.709414 3 0.0045 ** LIVRQNAC 20 −8.20655 8.458638 3 0.5143 ns LIVRQNAC 10 −1.71581 6.104437 3 0.9965 ns LIVRQNAC 1 −2.4E−15 11.85079 3 LIVRQNAC + G 40 −33.2001 3.55425 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQNAC + G 30 −30.8468 0.854995 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQNAC + G 20 −18.4318 4.870421 3 0.0187 * LIVRQNAC + G 10 14.63551 21.82024 3 0.0824 ns LIVRQNAC + G 1 2.37E−15 8.607557 3 LIVRQNAC + S 40 −26.5993 2.963677 3 0.0004 *** LIVRQNAC + S 30 −14.2166 1.460268 3 0.0954 ns LIVRQNAC + S 20 −8.2522 2.917345 3 0.5095 ns LIVRQNAC + S 10 8.127841 1.783214 3 0.5227 ns LIVRQNAC + S 1 0 6.232673 3 LIV 40 34.10306 1.950493 3 0.0001 **** LIV 30 31.10835 9.757211 3 0.0001 **** LIV 20 20.32684 3.17293 3 0.0081 ** LIV 10 15.10204 9.179111 3 0.0697 ns LIV 1 −7.1E−15 4.738966 3 LIVRQ 40 49.62156 17.37012 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQ 30 42.9625 7.798872 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQ 20 48.38603 13.08566 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQ 10 45.99191 15.19687 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQ 1 1.18E−15 6.324379 3 RQNAC 40 −36.5521 1.877658 3 0.0001 **** RQNAC 30 −26.3768 0.744676 3 0.0004 *** RQNAC 20 −18.7428 1.353649 3 0.0164 * RQNAC 10 −3.74427 4.74578 3 0.9393 ns RQNAC 1 2.37E−15 12.26314 3 N-Acetyl Cysteine 40 −33.7585 0.895842 3 0.0001 **** N-Acetyl Cysteine 20 −24.9999 1.083467 3 0.0008 *** N-Acetyl Cysteine 10 −9.75111 2.381012 3 0.3617 ns N-Acetyl Cysteine 5 −0.79458 5.988677 3 0.9998 ns N-Acetyl Cysteine 0 −2.4E−15 1.900091 3 Conc. (μM) Valine 23420 4.395899 10.35903 3 0.973 ns Valine 11710 −1.19605 7.303571 3 0.9998 ns Valine 4684 −4.52846 4.069907 3 0.97 ns Valine 234 −4.7E−15 9.361734 3 Arginine 5440 −12.4164 0.292618 3 0.5017 ns Arginine 2720 −13.6102 2.1177 3 0.4207 ns Arginine 1088 −9.70116 9.286942 3 0.6995 ns Arginine 109 2.37E−15 14.30728 3 Glutamine 22484 34.38845 7.467725 3 0.0026 ** Glutamine 11242 63.31441 35.02748 3 0.0001 **** Glutamine 3747 22.51543 9.686139 3 0.0721 ns Glutamine 749 2.37E−15 2.203881 3 Isoleucine 6639 −1.77438 10.22772 3 0.999 ns Isoleucine 3320 2.305485 1.328015 3 0.9975 ns Isoleucine 1328 −2.31776 9.121049 3 0.9974 ns Isoleucine 66 0 12.3413 3 Leucine 15270 47.59735 16.64049 3 0.0001 **** Leucine 7635 30.46065 7.144005 3 0.0087 ** Leucine 3054 29.60609 13.39676 3 0.0111 * Leucine 153 7.11E−15 6.308577 3 Treatment with LIVRQNAC, LIVRQNAC+G, LIVRQNAC+S, RQNAC, and NAC significantly reduced LPS-induced IL-6 secretion in primary human monocyte-derived macrophages. Treatment with LIVRQ and LIV significantly increased IL-6 secretion. Glutamine and leucine administered alone increased IL-6 secretion, while the other amino acids alone had no effect. Two Way ANOVA Dunnett Multiple Comparisons was performed for statistical analysis. Mean values represented as baseline subtracted values.

TABLE 71-7 IL-6 Measurements: Donor 3 Donor 3 IL-6 Measurements Std. Number Amino Acid Supplement Mean Deviation of values P-value* Significance Conc. (X) LIVRQNAC 40 −18.2445 4.129349 3 0.7529 ns LIVRQNAC 30 −16.8219 1.366045 3 0.8001 ns LIVRQNAC 20 −13.4826 12.48206 3 0.8948 ns LIVRQNAC 10 −34.4539 37.38053 3 0.2356 ns LIVRQNAC 1 −1.4E−14 14.03982 3 LIVRQNAC + G 40 −54.4799 5.467815 3 0.0228 * LIVRQNAC + G 30 −48.3118 1.960574 3 0.0513 ns LIVRQNAC + G 20 −55.792 7.763897 3 0.019 * LIVRQNAC + G 10 −44.8309 14.34972 3 0.0783 ns LIVRQNAC + G 1 0 26.01471 3 LIVRQNAC + S 40 −14.5337 15.82418 3 0.868 ns LIVRQNAC + S 30 −25.9127 10.00119 3 0.479 ns LIVRQNAC + S 20 −25.8862 21.61536 3 0.48 ns LIVRQNAC + S 10 −11.9742 10.3333 3 0.9277 ns LIVRQNAC + S 1 −4.3E−14 15.34164 3 LIV 40 10.21257 37.58938 3 0.9576 ns LIV 30 −32.6891 24.862 3 0.2771 ns LIV 20 27.66715 39.40901 3 0.4207 ns LIV 10 9.44789 71.20002 3 0.9677 ns LIV 1 −4.7E−14 27.50075 3 LIVRQ 40 74.9145 12.55033 3 0.001 *** LIVRQ 30 120.1764 20.21514 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQ 20 77.12007 11.45452 3 0.0007 *** LIVRQ 10 67.95483 43.58345 3 0.003 ** LIVRQ 1 −2.4E−14 27.62048 3 RQNAC 40 −45.9765 5.740028 3 0.0683 ns RQNAC 30 −53.3845 16.45009 3 0.0265 * RQNAC 20 −65.6761 3.400465 3 0.0044 ** RQNAC 10 −32.8776 33.99103 3 0.2724 ns RQNAC 1 −2.8E−14 23.14404 3 N-Acetyl Cysteine 40 −140.851 4.662272 3 0.0001 **** N-Acetyl Cysteine 20 −122.656 8.219985 3 0.0001 **** N-Acetyl Cysteine 10 −103.586 28.4385 3 0.0001 **** N-Acetyl Cysteine 5 −70.3269 8.563896 3 0.0021 ** N-Acetyl Cysteine 0 −9.5E−15 11.75797 3 Conc. (μM) Valine 23420 −29.2004 25.98066 3 0.4329 ns Valine 11710 −43.8022 8.331697 3 0.1239 ns Valine 4684 −30.0609 8.478329 3 0.4072 ns Valine 234 4.26E−14 17.2027 3 Arginine 5440 −6.80983 0.643932 3 0.9922 ns Arginine 2720 −7.50318 22.06663 3 0.9888 ns Arginine 1088 31.5786 70.48311 3 0.3642 ns Arginine 109 0 17.26952 3 Glutamine 22484 108.5158 55.59202 3 0.0001 **** Glutamine 11242 98.4903 58.37 3 0.0001 **** Glutamine 3747 25.35457 16.40416 3 0.556 ns Glutamine 749 3.79E−14 16.54987 3 Isoleucine 6639 −16.3663 8.09174 3 0.9718 ns Isoleucine 3320 0 19.80362 3 0.9928 ns Isoleucine 1328 −28.9897 13.10903 3 0.6593 ns Isoleucine 66 −6.69039 13.72995 3 Leucine 15270 # # 3 # # Leucine 7635 # # 3 # # Leucine 3054 # # 3 # # Leucine 153 # # 3 # # # Leucine was not measured in Exp3 due to technical error Treatment with LIVRQNAC+G, LIVRQNAC+S, RQNAC, and NAC significantly reduced LPS-induced IL-6 secretion in primary human monocyte-derived macrophages. Treatment with LIVRQ increased IL-6 secretion, while LIV and LIVRQNAC had no statistically significant effects on IL-6 secretion. Glutamine administered alone significantly increased IL-6 secretion, while other amino acids alone had no effect. Two Way ANOVA Dunnett Multiple Comparisons was performed for statistical analysis. Mean values represented as baseline subtracted values.

TABLE 71-8 TNFalpha Measurements: Donor 1 Donor 1 TNFa Measurements Std. Number Amino Acid Supplement Mean Deviation of values P-value* Significance Conc. (X) LIVRQNAC 40 −422.74 4.347575 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQNAC 30 −389.74 1.004633 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQNAC 20 −336.69 3.007435 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQNAC 10 −246.04 27.61929 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQNAC 1 0 36.31082 3 LIVRQNAC + G 40 −490.92 4.427614 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQNAC + G 30 −447.73 9.819865 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQNAC + G 20 −377.32 5.837159 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQNAC + G 10 −268.29 9.642365 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQNAC + G 1 0 37.44353 3 LIVRQNAC + S 40 −415.03 4.800449 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQNAC + S 30 −379.44 4.694868 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQNAC + S 20 −323.77 7.971135 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQNAC + S 10 −209.59 21.15676 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQNAC + S 1 0 30.0492 3 LIV 40 60.37 20.26331 3 0.0065 ** LIV 30 42.09 22.95664 3 0.0865 ns LIV 20 63.37 37.24144 3 0.004 ** LIV 10 45.61 44.71078 3 0.0556 ns LIV 1 0 10.49958 3 LIVRQ 40 6.38 17.1283 3 0.9909 ns LIVRQ 30 −6.72 18.9622 3 0.989 ns LIVRQ 20 38.38 39.85515 3 0.1333 ns LIVRQ 10 −18.95 10.84371 3 0.6982 ns LIVRQ 1 0 36.96184 3 RQNAC 40 −408.44 1.179877 3 0.0001 **** RQNAC 30 −390.41 1.341282 3 0.0001 **** RQNAC 20 −338.2 3.284307 3 0.0001 **** RQNAC 10 −251.35 4.121085 3 0.0001 **** RQNAC 1 0 51.06933 3 N-Acetyl Cysteine 40 −644.49 2.42197 3 0.0001 **** N-Acetyl Cysteine 20 −561.33 8.435064 3 0.0001 **** N-Acetyl Cysteine 10 −446.88 12.22132 3 0.0001 **** N-Acetyl Cysteine 5 −326.24 11.10173 3 0.0001 **** N-Acetyl Cysteine 0 0 42.00516 3 Conc. (μM) Valine 23420 −14.98 20.86784 3 0.9928 ns Valine 11710 −41.77 36.61662 3 0.7784 ns Valine 4684 −40.37 32.31016 3 0.7974 ns Valine 234 0 24.8661 3 Arginine 5440 62.06 48.80326 3 0.4786 ns Arginine 2720 5.12 15.47951 3 0.9998 ns Arginine 1088 −24.33 17.74317 3 0.9577 ns Arginine 109 0 18.5366 3 Glutamine 22484 −103.07 27.02483 3 0.0985 ns Glutamine 11242 −65.24 23.02631 3 0.4346 ns Glutamine 3747 −45.7 28.56445 3 0.7222 ns Glutamine 749 0 30.75138 3 Isoleucine 6639 −40.95 78.56369 3 0.7896 ns Isoleucine 3320 −96.3 45.66981 3 0.1339 ns Isoleucine 1328 −42.68 21.07739 3 0.7657 ns Isoleucine 66 0 115.9559 3 Leucine 15270 −46.21 29.00402 3 0.7148 ns Leucine 7635 −23.04 40.08864 3 0.965 ns Leucine 3054 42.04 77.19161 3 0.7746 ns Leucine 153 0 157.6578 3 Treatment with LIVRQNAC, LIVRQNAC+G, LIVRQNAC+S, RQNAC, and NAC significantly reduced LPS-induced TNFa secretion in primary human monocyte-derived macrophages. Treatment with LIV increased TNFa secretion, while LIVRQ had no significant effects on TNFa secretion. None of the individually administered amino acids had an effect on TNFa secretion. Two Way ANOVA Dunnett Multiple Comparisons was performed for statistical analysis. Mean values represented as baseline subtracted values.

TABLE 71-9 TNFalpha Measurements: Donor 2 Donor 2 TNFa Measurements Std. Number Amino Acid Supplement Mean Deviation of values P-value* Significance Conc. (X) LIVRQNAC 40 −98.1341 2.118962 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQNAC 30 −85.1019 1.385677 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQNAC 20 −64.3364 10.07525 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQNAC 10 −38.3512 5.120689 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQNAC 1 0 5.45587 3 LIVRQNAC + G 40 −91.3454 5.994009 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQNAC + G 30 −82.4397 4.200763 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQNAC + G 20 −61.247 8.702492 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQNAC + G 10 −23.9913 7.471422 3 0.008  ** LIVRQNAC + G 1 −4.7E−15 4.578295 3 LIVRQNAC + S 40 −74.1572 4.163823 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQNAC + S 30 −64.0016 5.549308 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQNAC + S 20 −47.5673 3.970363 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQNAC + S 10 −28.635 7.390447 3 0.0012 ** LIVRQNAC + S 1 −4.7E−15 7.564883 3 LIV 40 49.84155 4.092799 3 **** 0.0001 LIV 30 29.1118 14.72509 3 *** 0.001 LIV 20 30.17595 5.797518 3 *** 0.0006 LIV 10 16.68974 10.85983 3 ns 0.0974 LIV 1 0 10.41523 3 LIVRQ 40 64.1705 27.82953 3 **** 0.0001 LIVRQ 30 50.92104 6.955429 3 **** 0.0001 LIVRQ 20 45.65882 19.0128 3 **** 0.0001 LIVRQ 10 32.37038 19.44425 3 *** 0.0002 LIVRQ 1 −4.7E−15 5.942707 3 RQNAC 40 −84.147 5.821583 3 **** 0.0001 RQNAC 30 −77.9626 1.626776 3 **** 0.0001 RQNAC 20 −63.3754 3.494595 3 **** 0.0001 RQNAC 10 −37.6072 1.88043 3 **** 0.0001 RQNAC 1 −9.5E−15 4.727924 3 N-Acetyl Cysteine 40 −103.984 0.720962 3 0.0001 **** N-Acetyl Cysteine 20 −88.6528 0.668195 3 0.0001 **** N-Acetyl Cysteine 10 −70.8382 12.08717 3 0.0001 **** N-Acetyl Cysteine 5 −54.1596 11.06287 3 0.0001 **** N-Acetyl Cysteine 0 9.47E−15 2.926881 3 Conc. (μM) Valine 23420 −1.25079 12.85688 3 0.9991 ns Valine 11710 −0.83505 8.524018 3 0.9998 ns Valine 4684 −0.00221 5.127759 3 0.9999 ns Valine 234 −4.7E−15 8.717375 3 Arginine 5440 −0.57378 8.672536 3 0.9999 ns Arginine 2720 −3.76334 2.467885 3 0.9594 ns Arginine 1088 −12.7222 4.764842 3 0.2488 ns Arginine 109 1.42E−14 3.511446 3 Glutamine 22484 11.50181 6.216029 3 0.3311 ns Glutamine 11242 20.03996 11.90208 3 0.0279 * Glutamine 3747 9.338214 9.748253 3 0.5134 ns Glutamine 749 −9.5E−15 7.275868 3 Isoleucine 6639 19.25756 5.097831 3 0.0365 * Isoleucine 3320 10.26061 7.861148 3 0.4307 ns Isoleucine 1328 2.918887 1.921961 3 0.9836 ns Isoleucine 66 4.74E−15 6.264135 3 Leucine 15270 46.68507 11.63209 3 0.0001 **** Leucine 7635 41.97528 6.512087 3 0.0001 **** Leucine 3054 31.74019 11.56537 3 0.0002 *** Leucine 153 0 0.482598 3

Treatment with LIVRQNAC, LIVRQNAC+G, LIVRQNAC+S, RQNAC, and NAC significantly reduced LPS-induced TNFa secretion in primary human monocyte-derived macrophages. Treatment with LIV and LIVRQ increased TNFa secretion. Leucine, isoleucine, and glutamine administered individually increased TNFa secretion, while the other amino acids had no effect. Two Way ANOVA Dunnett Multiple Comparisons was performed for statistical analysis. Mean values represented as baseline subtracted values.

TABLE 71-10 TNFalpha Measurements: Donor 3 Donor 3 TNFa Measurements Std. Number Amino Acid Supplement Mean Deviation of values P-value* Significance Conc. (X) LIVRQNAC 40 −18.7507 2.487301 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQNAC 30 −15.5979 0.932399 3 0.0006 *** LIVRQNAC 20 −10.7042 3.013527 3 0.026 * LIVRQNAC 10 −8.49034 2.434812 3 0.1029 ns LIVRQNAC 1 0 4.067982 3 LIVRQNAC + G 40 −14.6552 3.149813 3 0.0013 ** LIVRQNAC + G 30 −11.6973 2.026588 3 0.0129 * LIVRQNAC + G 20 −8.0218 0.671662 3 0.1331 ns LIVRQNAC + G 10 −4.8035 1.658348 3 0.5453 ns LIVRQNAC + G 1 −2.4E−15 5.625453 3 LIVRQNAC + S 40 −14.247 1.800575 3 0.0018 ** LIVRQNAC + S 30 −15.1388 1.568817 3 0.0009 *** LIVRQNAC + S 20 −12.4722 3.334857 3 0.0073 ** LIVRQNAC + S 10 −6.72057 1.833554 3 0.2549 ns LIVRQNAC + S 1 0 4.171555 3 LIV 40 14.07984 11.14252 3 0.002 ** LIV 30 1.759786 1.102706 3 0.9748 ns LIV 20 14.51396 10.41503 3 0.0014 ** LIV 10 8.560957 12.86074 3 0.0989 ns LIV 1 2.37E−15 3.660423 3 LIVRQ 40 25.84453 0.659584 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQ 30 33.74883 5.974096 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQ 20 20.94481 2.163828 3 0.0001 **** LIVRQ 10 15.45187 3.942596 3 0.0007 *** LIVRQ 1 0 4.575346 3 RQNAC 40 −21.5102 1.191926 3 0.0001 **** RQNAC 30 −20.8898 2.622446 3 0.0001 **** RQNAC 20 −19.9558 3.302225 3 0.0001 **** RQNAC 10 −9.09425 5.483242 3 0.0725 ns RQNAC 1 0 6.189505 3 N-Acetyl Cysteine 40 −55.3093 0.809363 3 0.0001 **** N-Acetyl Cysteine 20 −48.4373 1.563179 3 0.0001 **** N-Acetyl Cysteine 10 −41.7266 3.533914 3 0.0001 **** N-Acetyl Cysteine 5 −33.6246 0.253484 3 0.0001 **** N-Acetyl Cysteine 0 4.74E−15 8.55997 3 Conc. (μM) Valine 23420 3.688279 7.532913 3 0.8962 ns Valine 11710 −2.59866 2.586099 3 0.9674 ns Valine 4684 0.126 0.903014 3 0.9999 ns Valine 234 −2.4E−15 2.731283 3 Arginine 5440 −1.76662 4.067694 3 0.992 ns Arginine 2720 −0.96691 4.86075 3 0.9991 ns Arginine 1088 3.131153 10.346 3 0.9384 ns Arginine 109 3.55E−15 4.325877 3 Glutamine 22484 29.14034 17.71417 3 0.0001 **** Glutamine 11242 18.00238 14.58602 3 0.0061 ** Glutamine 3747 1.935546 2.127977 3 0.9887 ns Glutamine 749 0 5.196592 3 Isoleucine 6639 −1.66019 4.262718 3 0.9938 ns Isoleucine 3320 3.308901 3.745411 3 0.9262 ns Isoleucine 1328 −6.22991 0.48195 3 0.5976 ns Isoleucine 66 −2.4E−15 3.844593 3 Leucine 15270 # # 3 # # Leucine 7635 # # 3 # # Leucine 3054 # # 3 # # Leucine 153 # # 3 # # # Leucine was not measured in Exp3 due to technical error Treatment with LIVRQNAC, LIVRQNAC+G, LIVRQNAC+S, RQNAC, and NAC significantly reduced LPS-induced TNFa secretion in primary human monocyte-derived macrophages. Treatment with LIV and LIVRQ increased TNFa secretion. Individually administered amino acids had no significant effect on TNFa secretion, except for glutamine which increased TNFa secretion. Two Way ANOVA Dunnett Multiple Comparisons was performed for statistical analysis. Mean values represented as baseline subtracted values.

Example 14: Treatment of NAFLD Patients with an Amino Acid Composition

The study described herein features the administration of a composition including amino acids to treat patients with NAFLD. The composition can include about 2 g of leucine, about 1 g of isoleucine, about 1 g of valine, about 3.62 g of arginine, about 4 g of glutamine, and about 0.3 g of N-acetylcysteine for administration three times per day (e.g., a total of about 36 g per day). The composition can also include about 2 g of leucine, about 1 g of isoleucine, about 1 g of valine, about 3.62 g of arginine, about 4 g of glutamine, and about 0.6 g of N-acetylcysteine for administration three times per day (e.g., a total of about 37 g per day).

Alternatively, the composition can include about 4 g of leucine, about 2 g of isoleucine, about 2 g of valine, about 7.24 g of arginine, about 8 g of glutamine, and about 0.6 g of N-acetylcysteine for administration two or three times per day (e.g., a total of about 48 g or a total of about 72 g per day). The composition can also include about 4 g of leucine, about 2 g of isoleucine, about 2 g of valine, about 7.24 g of arginine, about 8 g of glutamine, and about 1.2 g of N-acetylcysteine for administration two or three times per day (e.g., a total of about 49 g or a total of about 73 g per day).

For each composition, the dose can be administered prior to, concurrently with, or following a meal. Alternatively, the composition is not administered immediately before, with, or after a meal. The amino acid composition can be administered for a period of at least 12 weeks, e.g., for 12 weeks, 13 weeks, 14 weeks, 15 weeks, or 16 weeks. In particular, the amino acid composition is administered for a period of at least 16 weeks, e.g., for 16 weeks. The composition can be administered orally.

Key criteria for selecting NAFLD patients for enrollment in a clinical study of the amino acid composition include: 1) a diagnosis of NAFLD; 2) type 2 diabetes; 3) a relatively high BMI; 4) a NAFLD Fibrosis Score of less than 0.6; 5) a liver biopsy; and 7) a MRI and/or CT assessment of the liver. The patients can have type 2 diabetes in addition to NAFLD.

Fatty liver disease can be document by a prior history of steatosis confirmed within 3 months of screening by at least one of the following methods: liver fat by MRI with a PDFF ≥8%; fibroscan with Control Attenuation Parameter ≥300 dB/m; or liver biopsy indicating non-NASH NAFLD steatosis >Grade I. If the patient does not have this documented prior history of steatosis within 3 months of screening, then a liver fat score of ≥10% must be documented at the time of screening using the following formula:

Predicted percent liver fat=10̂(−0.805+(0.282*metabolic syndrome [yes=1/no=0])+(0.078*type 2 diabetes [yes=2/no=0])+(0.525*log 10(insulin mU/L))+(0.521*log 10(AST U/L))−(0.454*log 10(AST/ALT))³⁴

Patients can be on stable exercise, diet and lifestyle routine within 3 months prior to screening, with no major body weight fluctuations, e.g., subjects should be within ±3% of their body weight over the last 3 months at the time of screening. Patients can have a body mass index (BMI) ≥32 kg/m2 at screening. For sites whose MRI equipment cannot accommodate a patient with a BMI of ≥45 kg/m2, an upper limit between 40 to 45 kg/m2 may be applied.

Patients must be on a stable dose of glucose-lowering medication (which can include metformin, sulfonylureas, dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitors, sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors, or long-acting basal insulin) for at least 3 months before Screening and plan to remain on the same medication without anticipated dose adjustments of their medications for the duration of the study. Patients may be included in the study if they are concurrently treated with anti-hypertensive medications (e.g., beta blockers, hydrochlorothiazide, ACE inhibitors, angiotensin receptor blockers), medications for dyslipidemia (e.g., statins, fibrates), and medication for hypothyroidism (e.g., levothyroxine), so long as they have been on stable doses and regimen of these medications for at least 3 months before Screening and plan to remain on the same medication without anticipated dose adjustments of their medications for the duration of the study. Patients may be on vitamin supplements (e.g. multivitamins; vitamin E <400 IU/day). However, they must be on stable doses and regimen of these vitamin supplements for at least 3 months before screening without anticipated dose adjustments for the duration of the study.

Primary endpoints in the study include the safety and tolerability of administering the composition including amino acids to patients with NAFLD. Secondary endpoints indicative of an improvement in symptoms of NAFLD include the following: 1) intrahepatic fat reduction by MRI; and 2) assessment of biomarkers involved in liver biochemistry, fibrosis/apoptosis, and meteabolism. The following biomarkers can be assessed in a sample (e.g., a plasma or liver sample) from a NAFLD patient: a) alanine aminotransferase (ALT); b) aspartate aminotransferase (AST); c) adiponectin; d) N-terminal fragment of type III collagen (proC3); e) caspase-cleaved keratin 18 fragments (M30 and M65); f) IL-1 beta; g) C-reactive protein; h) PIIINP; i) TIMP1; j) MCP-1; k) FGF-21; or 1) gamma glutamyl transferase (GGT). For example, a subject with NAFLD can exhibit a decrease in levels of one, two, or more (e.g., all) of ALT, AST, or GGT after treatment with the composition.

The patient may exhibit a mean change in plasma glucose, insulin, homeostatic model assessment insulin resistance (HOMA IR), lipid profile, hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) and other metabolic parameters from, e.g., baseline to Weeks 6 and 12, including changes in plasma glucose and insulin levels in the setting of an oral glucose tolerance test (oGTT) from, e.g., baseline to Weeks 6 and 12. The patient may exhibit a mean change in body weight from, e.g., baseline to Weeks 6 and 12.

Administration of the amino acid composition can result in an improvement in the NAFLD activity score, glucose tolerance, hepatocyte inflammation, liver fibrosis or liver injury, steatosis, or hepatocyte ballooning in the patient.

Example 15. Treatment of NASH in a Mouse Model with an Amino Acid Composition Induction of NASH in Mice

In one example, the effects of LIVRQNAC and related amino acid compositions in the obesity, metabolism-driven non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) in FATZO mouse model was examined.

Materials and Methods Induction of NASH in Mice

NASH was induced in 60 male FATZO mice by a western diet (Research Diet # D12079B; fat 40% kcal, protein 17% kcal, carbohydrate 43% kcal) supplemented with 5% fructose in the drinking water (WDF) during a 16 week induction phase. Diets and water were available ad libitum. Littermate control male FATZO mice fed with a control diet (n=6, Purina #5008; fat 17% kcal, protein 27% kcal, carbohydrate 56% kcal) and sterile water were set up for control purpose. Mice were housed in plastic cages with microisolator. Sterilized bedding was replaced once a week. Mice were housed three per cage and maintained on a twelve hour light cycle throughout study duration. Room temperature was monitored daily and maintained at 22-25° C. Body weight was recorded every week during the induction phase.

Study Design

Following 16 weeks diet induction, 6 mice remained on control diet (group 1, Control) while 60 induced mice were randomized on body weight and plasma glucose (fed) for assignment to the following treatments. FATZO mice were administered with test articles starting at 16 weeks post western diet NASH induction for 4 weeks. Test articles were administered by oral gavage. Animals were euthanized at 20 weeks post western diet NASH induction, and tissues were harvested for analysis.

Group (n) Treatment (oral) Diet 1 6 Vehicle 5008 WDF 2 10 Vehicle D12079B + 5% Fructose 3 10 LIVRQNAC (1500 mg/kg) D12079B + 5% Fructose 4 10 LIVRQNAC (3000 mg/kg) D12079B + 5% Fructose 5 10 LIVRQNAC + G (3885 mg/kg) D12079B + 5% Fructose 6 10 LRQNAC (2469 mg/kg) D12079B + 5% Fructose 7 10 Obeticholic acid (OCA) D12079B + 5% Fructose 30 mg/kg/day

Test Articles

LIVRQNAC, LIVRQNAC+G, LRQNAC, and OCA (Advanced ChemBlocks, Inc.), incipient, and water for irrigation were provided by Axcella Health, Inc. 0.5% Methylcellulosewas provided by CrownBio, Inc. Dosing solutions were prepared according to Appendix 1. TA compounds (amino acid compositions) were amino acid blends formulated fresh daily in water for irrigation (Baxter #27F7114) and the excipients 0.125% Xanthan Gum, 1.5 mM Sodium Lauryl Sulfate and 0.28% Lecithin. Obeticholic acid (OCA) was suspended in 0.5% methylcellulose in water for irrigation. All test articles were stored refrigerated. TA compounds were provided in frozen powder form by the sponsor. Dosing was continued for 4 weeks.

Leucine dosages of LIVRQNAC+G and LRQNAC were matched to that of LIVRQNAC.

Amino Acid Compositions

Supplier Part Lot Ingredient Grade Supplier Number Number Fusi-BCAA Instantized Ajinomoto 33555 OH704 Unflavored (2:1:1 (0.3-0.9% (AjiPure) L-Leu:L-Ile:L- Lecithin) Val) L-Arginine HCl USP Sigma A4599 CDB0352V (Ajinomoto) L-Arginine HCl USP Sigma A4599 CDB0352V (Ajinomoto) L-Glutamine USP Ajinomoto 32824 R014A003 Glycine USP Ajinomoto 30359 R015T008 Acetylcysteine USP Spectrum AC126 1FI0576 (NAC) Chemical LIVRQNAC LIVRQNAC + G LRQNAC Daily Daily Daily Ingredient Dose (g) Dose (g) Dose (g) Fusi-BCAA Unflavored 24.0 24.0 (2:1:1 L-Leu:L-Ile:L-Val) Fusil (L-Leucine) 12.0 L-Arginine HCl 18.0 18.0 18.0 L-Glutamine 24.0 24.0 24.0 Glycine 20.0 Acetylcysteine (NAC) 1.8 1.8 1.8 AMINO ACIDS = 67.8 87.8 55.8

Test Articles Administration

LIVRQNAC, LIVRQNAC+G, LRQNAC, OCA and Vehicle were administered by oral gavage at a volume of 10 mL/kg throughout the study. Dosages were calculated by daily body weight. LIVRQNAC, LIVRQNAC+G, LRQNAC, and Vehicle were administered twice per day (BID), while OCA was administered once a day (QD) in the morning. Mice receiving OCA once per day (QD), and one vehicle QD. Doses were administered by oral gavage at 0700 and 1800 by oral gavage for 4 weeks.

Body Weight and Blood Glucose

The viability, clinical signs and behavior were monitored daily. Body weight was recorded daily during the dosing period. Blood samples were collected weekly in the AM (0700) via tail clip for glucose measurement (StatStrip glucometer).

Necropsy and Sample Harvest

Animals were anesthetized with CO2 inhalation and exsanguinated via cardiac puncture for euthanasia. Terminal blood samples (K2EDTA) were obtained by cardiac puncture in anesthetized animals at termination. Samples were provided frozen to Axcella Health. Organ weights (total liver, gonadal fat pads) were recorded. Pancreas, and small intestine and gonadal fat pads were fixed in 10% Buffered Formalin and prepared as directed in protocol. A section of small intestine, gonadal fat pad and liver were also snap frozen in liquid nitrogen and shipped to the sponsor.

Histological Analyses

The liver tissues were fixed in Bouin's solution at 4° C. for 24 hours followed by baths of standard concentrations of alcohol then xylene to prepare the tissues for paraffin embedding. After being embedded in paraffin and cooled, five-micron sections were cut and stained for routine H&E and Picric Sirius Red. A section of both right and left lobes of the livers were frozen in OCT for analysis of lipid content with Oil-Red-) staining. The Aperio whole slide digital imaging system (Scan Scope CS, Vista, Calif.) was used for imaging. All slides were imaged at 20×. The scan time ranged from 1.5 minutes to a maximum time of 2.25 minutes. The whole images were housed and stored in their Spectrum software system and images were shot from the whole slides.

The livers were evaluated using the NASH liver criteria for scoring. In this mouse study, one cross section of liver for each case was analyzed with the NASH score system. According to the published NASH CRN Scoring System, this scoring system comprises of NAFLD Activity Score (NAS), fibrosis stage and identification of NASH by pattern recognition. The NAS can range from 0 to 8 and is calculated by the sum of scores of steatosis (0-3), lobular inflammation (0-3) and hepatocyte ballooning (0-2) from H&E stained sections. Fibrosis was scored (0-4) from picrosirius red stained slides. The NASH system is used for human liver 18 gauge biopsies. Steatosis, lobular inflammation, hepatocyte. balloon degeneration, fibrosis, NAS and the presence of NASH by pattern recognition were systematically assessed. In this study we evaluated one total cross section of liver per mouse in this study. This is about 15 times the size of an 18 gauge human liver biopsy. The pathology score was determined as 0, +1, +2, or +3. The lesions were scored on location (periportal, centrilobular, and mid zonal) and fat accumulation (focal, periportal, and/or centrilobular). The other part of the score was distribution of the lesions: focal, multifocal and/or diffuse. Also, mild, moderate and severity of the lesions. These parameters made up the total NASH score.

All immunohistochemical staining steps were performed using the Dako FLEX SYSTEM on an automated immunostainer; incubations were done at room temperature and Tris buffered saline plus 0.05% Tween 20, pH 7.4 (TBS—Dako Corp.) was used for all washes and diluents. Thorough washing was performed after each incubation. Primary antibodies included anti-mouse SMA, F4/80, Mac-2, and Picric Sirius Red. Control sections were treated with an isotype control using the same concentration as primary antibodies to verify the staining specificity.

White adipose tissue (WAT) adipocyte size was analyzed from the H&E stained sections. Using the Aperio Image Scope application, 3 localized regions (edge of tissue, tissue not surrounding vascular area, tissue surrounding vascular area) of each tissue specimen were assessed by measuring the area of 10 largest adipocytes of the region. Within each tissue, 10 hot spots of each regions were quantified (um²) and averaged.

Pancreatic beta-islet cells were identified by immunohistochemical staining.

Image Analysis

Aperio Automatic Image Quantitation was employed to quantify positive pixels of immunohistochemical staining, Oil-Red O, and Sirius Red staining. The Positive Pixel Count algorithm was used to quantify the percentage of a specific stain present in a scanned slide image. A range of color (range of hues and saturation) and three intensity ranges (weak, positive, and strong) were masked and evaluated. The algorithm counted the number and intensity-sum in each intensity range, along with three additional quantities: average intensity, ratio of strong/total number, and average intensity of weak positive pixels. The positive pixel algorithm was modified to distinguish between the orange and blue colors. Alterations from the normal “hue value” (0.1 to 0.96) and “color saturation” (0.04 to 0.29), were made for the Sirius Red evaluation. Vasculature and artifacts were excluded from analysis.

Liver Gene Expression Analysis

Liver gene expression of MCP-1 and MIP-1a was measured by quantitative PCR.

Liver Cytokine and Chemokine Measurement

Liver IL-1b, MCP-1, and MIP-1 protein levels were quantified using the multiplex ELISA Assay (Meso Scale Discovery, Rockville, Md.).

Statistical Analysis

Statistical analyses of liver histological scores were performed using Bonferroni Multiple Comparison Test on GraphPad Prism 6 (GraphPad Software Inc., USA). P values <0.05 were considered statistically significant. Results were expressed as mean±SEM. Comparisons were made between Group 2 (Vehicle) and the following groups; Group 3 (LIVRQNAC 1,500 mg/kg), Group 4 (LIVRQNAC 3,000 mg/kg), Group 5 (LIVRQNAC+G, 3,885 mg/kg), and (LRQNAC, 2,469 mg/kg).

Results Body and Liver Weight

Feeding the western diet supplemented with fructose (WDF) for 16 weeks elicited significant effects on body weight compared to control fed animals. Prior to administration of test agent, animals fed the WDF were significantly heavier (47.6±0.45 vs. 43.9±1.03 g; p<0.01) compared to animals fed the control diet.

Body weight decreased compared to baseline values in all treatment groups; there were no significant differences in weight loss compared to vehicle (−7.6±0.9, −6.9±1.3, −6.8±1.4, −5.7±1.2, −6.4±1.0, −4.7±1.6 and −3.9±1.5% for control, vehicle, LIVRQNAC (1500 mg/kg), LIVRQNAC (3000 mg/kg), LIVRQNAC+G, LRQNAC, and OCA, respectively; p<0.4992).

Liver weight (% body weight) was significantly higher in vehicle treated animals fed WDF compared to control diet (7.22±0.3 vs. 5.05±0.24%; p<0.0001); however, in animals fed WDF, no significant effects compared to vehicle were noted in any treatment group (7.22±03, 7.14±0.3, 7.19±0.26, 6.69±0.18, 7.02±0.5 and 6.81±0.2 for vehicle, LIVRQNAC (1500 mg/kg), LIVRQNAC (3000 mg/kg), LIVRQNAC+G, LRQNAC, and OCA, respectively; p<0.7450).

Blood Glucose

Feeding the western diet supplemented with fructose (WDF) for 16 weeks elicited significant effects on glycemia compared to control fed animals. Prior to administration of test agent, animals fed the WDF had significantly lower glucose (160.0±3.01 vs. 218.3±28.6 mg/dL; p<0.0001) compared to animals fed the control diet.

Blood glucose, although higher in control animals at baseline, remained relatively stable during 4 weeks of compound administration. When averaged over the dosing period, there were no significant differences in average blood glucose compared to vehicle for any treatment group (166.0±9.7, 157.1±4.6, 154.6±2.3, 159.4±3.8, 155.5±3.8, 153.6±3.0 and 169.7±6.3 mg/dL for control, vehicle, LIVRQNAC (1500 mg/kg), LIVRQNAC (3000 mg/kg), LIVRQNAC+G, LRQNAC, and OCA, respectively; p<0.1587).

Liver Triglyceride and Cholesterol

Liver triglyceride and cholesterol content were similarly elevated after WDF feeding compared to vehicle treated animals fed control diet (liver triglyceride p<0.0040; liver cholesterol: p<0.0001). Among animals fed WDF, there were no significant differences in liver triglyceride (p<0.1206) when compared to vehicle for any treatment group. While OCA reduced liver cholesterol content compared to vehicle by 32% (p<0.05), no amino acid composition treatment group affected liver cholesterol as compared to WDF feeding vehicle group.

LIVRQNAC LIVRQNAC Liver Vehicle 1.5 g/kg 3.0 g/kg LIVRQNAC + G LRQNAC OCA Triglyceride 31.49 ± 5.85 47.63 ± 1.19 47.94 ± 1.37 50.57 ± 1.58 49.47 ± 1.4 49.81 ± 1.63 Cholesterol  8.37 ± 0.065  7.74 ± 0.318  7.48 ± 0.697  6.42 ± 0.648  7.84 ± 0.104  5.63 ± 0.495

Liver Histology

FATZO mice fed with the control diet developed mild steatosis and no inflammation, ballooning, or fibrosis (FIG. 10). FATZO mice fed with the WDF and treated with vehicle developed significant steatosis, mild inflammation, ballooning, and fibrosis. In contrast to predominantly macrovesicular steatosis in the vehicle groups, a mixture of predominantly microvesicular and diminished macrovesicular steatosis was observed in LIVRQNAC, LIVRQNAC+G and LRQNAC groups, as shown in FIG. 11.

The NAFLD activity score is calculated from histological scoring of steatosis (0-3), inflammation (0-3), and ballooning (0-2) in fixed liver tissues. In WDF fed animals, all amino acid composition treatments produced a significant reduction in the NAS compared to the vehicle treatment group (FIG. 12). LIVRQNAC and amino acid composition treatments reduced liver steatosis as compared to vehicle, although only LIVRQNAC+G and LRQNAC reached statistical significance (p<0.05), while LIVRQNAC did not (LIVRQNAC 3.0 g/kg, p=0.12). All amino acid composition treatments significantly attenuated hepatocyte ballooning, the biomarker of lipotoxicity and cell death. Amino acid composition treatments did not significantly alter liver inflammation. In conclusion, amino acid composition-associated improvement of liver pathology is mainly attributed to attenuation of hepatocyte ballooning.

There was no significant effect of OCA on the NAS score and NAS components compared to vehicle.

Liver LIVRQNAC LIVRQNAC Pathology Vehicle 1.5 g/kg 3.0 g/kg LIVRQNAC + G LRQNAC OCA NAS 3.65 ± 0.183 2.70 ± 0.213 2.89 ± 0.111 2.83 ± 0.186 2.72 ± 0.147 3.72 ± 0.147 Steatosis  1.8 ± 0.133  1.6 ± 0.163 1.44 ± 0.176 1.33 ± 0.167 1.33 ± 0.167 1.78 ± 0.147 Inflammation  0.9 ± 0.1  1.0 ± 0.0  1.0 ± 0.0  1.0 ± 0.0  1.0 ± 0.0  1.0 ± 0.0 Ballooning 0.95 ± 0.05  0.1 ± 0.1 0.44 ± 0.176 0.50 ± 0.144 0.39 ± 0.111 0.94 ± 0.056

Livers from vehicle treated animals demonstrated a mild fibrosis; score of 0.8±0.1. Only livers from animals treated with LIVRQNAC (1500 mg/kg) demonstrated a significant reduction in fibrosis when compared to the vehicle treated group, (0.2±0.1 versus 0.8±0.1, p<0.01), but not with LIVRQNAC (3000 mg/kg), LIVRQNAC+G or LRQNAC. Sirius Red collagen staining demonstrated that all amino acid composition treatments had significantly lower collagen deposition compared to vehicle (LIVRQNAC 1500 mg/kg, p<0.01; LIVRQNAC 3000 mg/kg, p<0.01; LIVRQNAC+G, p=0.09; LRQNAC, p<0.05). OCA did not affect liver fibrosis score or Sirius Red collagen staining area.

LIVRQNAC LIVRQNAC Fibrosis Vehicle 1.5 g/kg 3.0 g/kg LIVRQNAC + G LRQNAC OCA Fibrosis  0.8 ± 0.133  0.2 ± 0.133 0.44 ± 0.176  0.44 ± 0.176 0.33 ± 0.167 0.67 ± 0.167 Sirius 1.82 ± 0.279 0.77 ± 0.116 0.72 ± 0.092 0.107 ± 0.218 0.79 ± 0.183 1.59 ± 0.36 Red

Consistent with liver triglyceride levels, amino acid composition treatments did not alter liver Oil Red O staining area compared to vehicle group. OCA reduced Oil Red O staining area (p<0.05).

LIVRQNAC LIVRQNAC Oil Red O Vehicle 1.5 g/kg 3.0 g/kg LIVRQNAC + G LRQNAC OCA Oil Red O  0.32 ± 0.019  0.28 ± 0.022  0.30 ± 0.022  0.26 ± 0.023  0.29 ± 0.018  0.24 ± 0.021 Triglyceride 31.49 ± 5.85 47.63 ± 1.19 47.94 ± 1.37 50.57 ± 1.58 49.47 ± 1.4 49.81 ± 1.63

Liver Gene Expression

MCP-1 (CCL2) and MIP-1a (CCL3) are proinflammatory chemokines that mediate liver inflammation via macrophage and neutrophil recruitment. MCP-1 and MIP-1a are the ligands of CCR2 and CCR5, respectively, which serve the promising therapeutic targets to treat liver fibrosis in NASH. MCP-1 and MIP-1a RNA expression levels in the liver were significantly upregulated in the WDF fed mice as compared to control diet-fed mice, as shown in Tables 74 and 75.

TABLE 74 Fold change in MCP-1 mRNA levels after administration of amino acid compositions LIVRQNAC LIVRQNAC + G LRQNAC Ctrl (3000 (3885 (2469 MCP-1 diet Vehicle mg/kg) mg/kg) mg/kg) Mean 0.1457 1.079 1.396 0.6102 0.8777 SEM 0.0291 0.1956 0.3414 0.09597 0.2315

TABLE 75 Fold change in MIP-1a mRNA levels after administration of amino acid compositions LIVRQNAC LIVRQNAC + G LRQNAC Ctrl (3000 (3885 (2469 MIP-1a diet Vehicle mg/kg) mg/kg) mg/kg) Mean 0.08328 1.194 1.67 0.814 1.514 SEM 0.02141 0.25 0.3366 0.1029 0.525

LIVRQNAC and LRQNAC treatments did not significantly alter liver MCP-1 and MIP-1a RNA expression as compared to vehicle group. LIVRQNAC+G treatment resulted in slightly lower liver MCP-1 RNA expression as compared to vehicle group (p=0.054) and LIVRQNAC group (p<0.05). Similarly, LIVRQNAC+G treatment resulted in slightly lower liver MCP-1 RNA expression as compared to vehicle group although the difference was not significant (p=0.19) and LIVRQNAC group (p<0.05).

Liver Chemokines and Cytokines

Consistent with RNA data (FIG. 25), liver MCP-1 and MIP-1a protein levels were elevated in the WDF fed mice as compared to control diet-fed mice, as shown in Tables 76 and 77.

TABLE 76 Mean liver MCP-1 protein levels after administration of amino acid compositions LIVRQNAC LIVRQNAC + G LRQNAC Ctrl (3000 (3885 (2469 MCP-1 diet Vehicle mg/kg) mg/kg) mg/kg) Mean 41.47 278.3 392 221.1 247.1 SEM 7.463 61.41 83.97 36.6 75.16

TABLE 77 Mean liver MIP-1a protein levels after administration of amino acid compositions LIVRQNAC LIVRQNAC + G LRQNAC Ctrl (3000 (3885 (2469 MIP-1a diet Vehicle mg/kg) mg/kg) mg/kg) Mean 23.16 191.8 282.9 142.8 141.1 SEM 5.429 30.03 58.88 17.04 24.36

Liver MCP-1 and MIP-1a protein levels were also positively correlated with RNA expression levels, as shown in Tables 78 and 79.

TABLE 78 Correlations between MCP-1 protein and RNA levels after administration of amino acid compositions Ctrl diet y = 0.0022x + 0.0542 R2 = 0.3202 Vehicle y = 0.0029x + 0.3316 R2 = 0.7986 LIVRQNAC (3000 mg/kg) y = 0.0036x + 0.0144 R2 = 0.7831 LIVRQNAC + G (3885 mg/kg) y = 0.0018x + 0.2542 R2 = 0.3988 LRQNAC (2469 mg/kg) y = 0.0027x + 0.2969 R2 = 0.6857

TABLE 79 Correlations between MIP-1a protein and RNA levels after administration of amino acid compositions Ctrl diet y = 0.001x + 0.0593 R2 = .069 Vehicle y = 0.0057x + 0.191 R2 = 0.4202 LIVRQNAC (3000 mg/kg) y = 0.0051x + 0.2334 R2 = 0.7887 LIVRQNAC + G (3885 mg/kg) y = 0.0045x + 0.1817 R2 = 0.4403 LRQNAC (2469 mg/kg) y = 0.0064x + 0.1814 R2 = 0.4875

LIVRQNAC and LRQNAC treatments did not significantly alter liver MCP-1 and MIP-1a protein levels as compared to vehicle group. LIVRQNAC+G treatment slightly lowered liver MCP-1 (p=0.095) and MIP-1a (p<0.05) protein levels as compared to LIVRQNAC group. Additionally, liver MCP-1 and MIP-1a protein levels positively correlated, as shown in Table 80.

TABLE 80 Correlations between MCP-1 and MIP-1a protein levels after administration of amino acid compositions Ctrl diet y = 0.6803x − 5.0537 R2 = 0.8744 Vehicle y = 0.389x + 83.574 R2 = 0.6325 LIVRQNAC (3000 mg/kg) y = 0.6615x + 23.609 R2 = 0.8903 LIVRQNAC + G (3885 mg/kg) y = 0.4437x + 44.728 R2 = 0.9082 LRQNAC (2469 mg/kg) y = 0.3108x + 75.901 R2 = 0.9241

Proinflammatory cytokines IL-1b, IL-6, TNFa, and CXCL1 protein levels in liver were elevated in the WDF fed mice as compared to control diet-fed mice, as shown in Tables 81-84.

TABLE 81 Mean liver IL-1b protein levels after administration of amino acid compositions LIVRQNAC LIVRQNAC + G LRQNAC Ctrl (3000 (3885 (2469 IL-1b diet Vehicle mg/kg) mg/kg) mg/kg) Mean 10.53 22.31 22.11 14.42 28.85 SEM 1.248 6.063 5.739 3.299 10.41

TABLE 82 Mean liver IL-6 protein levels after administration of amino acid compositions LIVRQNAC LIVRQNAC + G LRQNAC Ctrl (3000 (3885 (2469 IL-6 diet Vehicle mg/kg) mg/kg) mg/kg) Mean 5.838 8.452 7.298 5.77 6.71 SEM 0.3536 2.723 2.043 1.06 1.625

TABLE 83 Mean liver CXCL1 protein levels after administration of amino acid compositions LIVRQNAC LIVRQNAC + G LRQNAC Ctrl (3000 (3885 (2469 CXCL1 diet Vehicle mg/kg) mg/kg) mg/kg) Mean 41.42 105.9 119.6 77.77 84.9 SEM 2.487 13.26 26.15 8.023 10.49

TABLE 84 Mean liver TNFα protein levels after administration of amino acid compositions LIVRQNAC LIVRQNAC + G LRQNAC Ctrl (3000 (3885 (2469 TNFa diet Vehicle mg/kg) mg/kg) mg/kg) Mean 1.703 3.71 4.574 2.974 4.119 SEM 0.5641 0.4647 0.5654 0.1513 0.8341

LIVRQNAC, LIVRQNAC+G, and LRQNAC treatments did not significantly alter IL-1b, IL-6, TNFa, and CXCL1 protein levels as compared to vehicle. Liver TNFa levels were lower by LIVRQNAC+G treatment as compared to LIVRQNAC.

Summary

Based on clinical observations, WDF-fed FATZO mice gained more body weight that those fed with a control diet. Fed blood glucose levels were comparable between WDF-fed and control diet-fed mice despite of the difference in body weight change. All treatments were well tolerated in FATZO mice. Both WDF-fed and control diet-fed mice lose body weight during the treatment period, which may be due to the stress associated with administration of test articles or vehicle via oral gavage twice a day.

NAS was significantly attenuated in all amino acid composition treatment groups as compared to vehicle, predominantly attributing to ballooning score. Hepatocyte ballooning was significantly reduced in all the amino acid composition treatment groups. Steatosis was significantly reduced in LIVRQNAC+G and LRQNAC treatment groups. LIVRQNAC also lowered steatosis, although the difference was not significant Inflammation was not affected by amino acid composition treatments. Despite the histological improvement in steatosis score in LIVRQNAC+G and LRQNAC treatment groups, liver triglyceride, cholesterol, and Oil-Red O staining remained unchanged by amino acid composition treatments. Consistent with the histological and biochemical data, de novo lipogenesis enzymes FASN and ACACA RNA levels were not affected by amino acid composition treatment.

Although liver triglyceride levels were not affected by amino acid composition treatments, the characteristics of hepatocyte steatosis were differed by amino acid composition treatments. Liver of the WDF-fed mice (vehicle group) demonstrated predominantly macrovesicular steatosis. In contrast, macrovesicular steatosis was diminished, and a mixture of microvesicular and macrovesicular steatosis in all amino acid composition treatment groups. The biological meaning and mechanism of amino acid compositions on macro- to microvesicular steatosis phenotypes merit further investigation.

Liver fibrosis score in FATZO model of NAFLD was significantly attenuated by LIVRQNAC treatment at low dose but not at high dose. LIVRQNAC+G and LRQNAC had no effect on fibrosis. Nonetheless, Sirius Red collagen staining demonstrated that LIVRQNAC, LIVRQNAC+G and LRQNAC significantly reduced collagen deposition in the liver.

Consistent with liver inflammation scores, liver RNA and protein levels of the proinflammatory chemokine MCP-1 and MIP-1a and cytokines IL-1b, IL-6, TNFa, and CXCL1 were not significantly affected by amino acid composition treatment. It is of interest to note that LIVRQNAC+G (equivalent to LIVRQNAC plus Glycine) treatment had lower liver MCP-1, MIP-1a, and TNFa as compared to LIVRQNAC.

Increased liver oxidative stress associated with inflammation is observed during NAFLD and NASH. Glutathione (GSH) is a pivotal endogenous anti-oxidant which can counteract reactive oxygen species. Glycine and its direct metabolic precursor, serine, are substrates for GSH biosynthesis. Thus, serine and/or glycine supplementation helps replenish GSH and ameliorates NAFLD and NASH. LIVRQNACG treatment had lower inflammation chemokines and cytokines in the liver, supporting that supplementation of glycine or serine is beneficial in NAFLD and NASH.

In conclusion, all three amino acid compositions (LIVRQNAC, LIVRQNAC+G and LRQNAC) tested in FATZO mice attenuate NAFLD activity scores, hepatocyte ballooning, and fibrosis. These amino acid compositions can be used to treat NASH. Glycine-containing amino acid compositions can further reduce liver inflammation which results in reduced liver fibrosis.

While the invention has been particularly shown and described with reference to a preferred embodiment and various alternate embodiments, it will be understood by persons skilled in the relevant art that various changes in form and details can be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention.

All references, issued patents and patent applications cited within the body of the instant specification are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety, for all purposes. 

1. A method for improving liver function, wherein the method comprises administering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of a composition comprising: a) a L-amino acid entity chosen from: i) L-leucine or a salt thereof, ii) a dipeptide or salt thereof, or tripeptide or salt thereof, comprising L-leucine, or iii) β-hydroxfy-β-methylbutyrate (HMB) or a salt thereof; b) an R-amino acid entity chosen from: i) L-arginine or a salt thereof, ii) a dipeptide or salt thereof, or tripeptide or salt thereof, comprising L-arginine, iii) ornithine or a salt thereof, iv) a dipeptide or salt thereof, or tripeptide or salt thereof, comprising ornithine, v) creatine or a salt thereof, or vi) a dipeptide or salt thereof, or tripeptide or salt thereof, comprising creatine; c) L-glutamine or a salt thereof or a dipeptide or salt thereof, or tripeptide or salt thereof, comprising L-glutamine; and d) N-acetylcysteine (NAC) or a salt thereof or a dipeptide or salt thereof, or tripeptide or salt thereof, comprising NAC.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the subject has a disease or disorder selected from non-alcoholic fatty liver (NAFL), non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), alcoholic fatty liver disease (AFLD), or alcoholic steatohepatitis (ASH).
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the subject has cirrhosis, hepatocarcinoma, an increased risk of liver failure, an increased risk of death, metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes, a high BMI, obesity, gut leakiness, gut dysbiosis, gut microbiome disturbance, or a combination thereof.
 4. The method of claim 1, wherein administration of the composition results in two or more of: a) decreasing or preventing liver fibrosis; b) decreasing or preventing liver injury; c) decreasing or preventing hepatocyte inflammation; d) improving glucose tolerance; e) decreasing or preventing steatosis; f) decreasing or preventing hepatocyte ballooning; g) improving gut function; h) decreasing or preventing fibrogenic gene expression; i) decreasing or preventing liver or macrophage expression or secretion of inflammatory cytokines or chemokines; or j) decreasing or preventing hepatocyte lipid accumulation.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the composition further comprises one or both of an isoleucine (I)-amino acid-entity and a valine (V)-amino acid-entity.
 6. The method of claim 1, wherein one or both of the R-amino acid entity and the L-glutamine or a salt thereof are present at a higher amount (wt. %) than the L-amino acid entity.
 7. The method of claim 1, wherein the composition further comprises a serine (S)-amino acid entity chosen from L-serine, phosphoserine, P-hydroxypyruvate, L-glycine, tryptophan, acetylserine, cystathionine, phosphatidylserine, or any combination thereof. 8.-14. (canceled)
 15. A method for treating a fatty liver disease, wherein the method comprises administering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of a composition comprising: a) a L-amino acid entity chosen from: i) L-leucine or a salt thereof, ii) a dipeptide or salt thereof, or tripeptide or salt thereof, comprising L-leucine, or iii) β-hydroxy-β-methylbutyrate (HMB) or a salt thereof; b) an R-amino acid entity chosen from: i) L-arginine or a salt thereof, ii) a dipeptide or salt thereof, or tripeptide or salt thereof, comprising L-arginine, iii) ornithine or a salt thereof, iv) a dipeptide or salt thereof, or tripeptide or salt thereof, comprising ornithine, v) creatine or a salt thereof, or vi) a dipeptide or salt thereof, or tripeptide or salt thereof, comprising creatine; c) L-glutamine or a salt thereof or a dipeptide or salt thereof, or tripeptide or salt thereof, comprising L-glutamine; and d) N-acetylcysteine (NAC) or a salt thereof or a dipeptide or salt thereof, or tripeptide or salt thereof, comprising NAC.
 16. The method of claim 15, wherein the fatty liver disease is selected from NAFL, NAFLD, NASH, AFLD, or ASH.
 17. The method of claim 15, wherein the subject has cirrhosis, hepatocarcinoma, an increased risk of liver failure, an increased risk of death, metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes, a high BMI, obesity, gut leakiness, gut dysbiosis, gut microbiome disturbance, or a combination thereof.
 18. The method of claim 15, wherein the composition further comprises one or both of an I-amino acid-entity and a V-amino acid-entity.
 19. The method of claim 15, wherein the composition further comprises a S-amino acid entity chosen from L-serine, phosphoserine, P-hydroxypyruvate, L-glycine, tryptophan, acetylserine, cystathionine, phosphatidylserine, or any combination thereof.
 20. The method of claim 15, wherein one or both of the R-amino acid entity and the L-glutamine or a salt thereof are present at a higher amount (wt. %) than the L-amino acid entity.
 21. The method of claim 15, wherein the subject is a human.
 22. The method of claim 18, wherein the I-amino acid entity is chosen from L-isoleucine, 2-oxo-3-methyl-valerate, threonine, 2-oxo-3-methyl-valerate, methylbutyrl-CoA, D-isoleucine, N-acetyl-isoleucine, or any combination thereof.
 23. The method of claim 18, wherein the V-amino acid entity is chosen from L-valine, 2-oxo-valerate, isobutryl-CoA, 3-HIB-CoA, 3-HIB, D-valine, N-acetyl-valine, or any combination thereof.
 24. The method of claim 15, wherein the composition comprises: 1) a wt. % of the c) in the composition is greater than the wt. % of the R-amino acid entity of b); 2) the wt. % of the c) in the composition is greater than or equal to the wt. % of the L-amino acid entity of a); 3) the wt. % of the R-amino acid entity of b) in the composition is greater than the wt. % of the L-amino acid entity of a); or 4) a combination of two or three of (1)-(3).
 25. The method of claim 18, wherein a)-d), the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity of the composition are each a free amino acid or a salt thereof.
 26. The method of claim 22, wherein the composition comprises a ratio of the L-amino acid, the I-amino acid, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination to the R-amino acid entity of b), the L-glutamine or a salt thereof, and the NAC or a salt thereof is 1+/−15%:0.5+/−15%:0.5+/−15%: 1.5+/−15%:2+/−15%:0.15+/−15%.
 27. The method of claim 22, wherein the composition further comprises a L-serine, and wherein a ratio of the L-amino acid-entity of a), the I-amino acid-entity, and the V-amino acid-entity in combination to the R-amino acid entity of b), L-glutamine or a salt thereof, the NAC or a salt thereof, and the L-serine is 12+/−15%:6+/−15%:3+/−15%:9+/−15%:12+/−15%:2.7+/−15%:18+/−15%. 